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NATURAL HISTORY
VOLUME LXXXVII
1978
Published by AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY NEW YORK, N.Y.
January No. I
Authors 4
A Matter of Taste: Grounds for Delight
Raymond Sokolov 8
The Great Energy Standoff Luther P. Gerlach 22
This View of Life: Nature's Odd Couples
Stephen Jay Gould 38 Tovil: Exorcism by White Magic
Michael M. Ames
Photographs by Yvonne Hannemann 42
Ibex in Israel Len Aronson
Photographs by Gail Rubin 50
The Value of Virgin Birth Charles J. Cole 56
Of Cricket Song and Sex William Cade 64
Rituals at McDonald's Conrad P. Kottak 74
Climate and the Planets Richard Goody 84
The Human Condition .. .Review by Ashley Montagu 96
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 104
The Market 106
Additional Reading 108
Announcements 1 10
February No. 2
Authors 2
This View of Life: An Early Start
Stephen Jay Gould 10
Sky Reporter: Strung-Out Stars Stephen P. Maran 30
A Matter of Taste: Pease Be With You
Raymond Sokolov 38
Bios: A Living Fossil Arthur W. Galston 42
Abundant Birds of Beringia William H. Drury
Photographs by Hope Alexander 46
Buzkashi Asen Balikci
Photographs by Jim Sheldon 54 The Elegant Symmetry of Crystals
Rodney C. Ewing 64
The Dust Storms Marilyn Coffey 72
The Ornamental Eye Ronald E. Thresher 84
Notes from a Pioneer . . . Review by Rosalie H. Wax 90
The Market 96
In Pursuit of Birds . . . Review by Michael Harwood 98
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 104
Additional Reading 106
Announcements 108
March No. 3
Authors 2
Thoreau's Unfinished Business Loren Eiseley 6
This View of Life: Crazy Old Randolph
Kirkpatrick Stephen Jay Gould 20
A Nudge from the Hand of God... Stephen Pastner 32 Sky Reporter: What Are Comets Made Of?
Michael Oppenheimer 42
Imperiled Bats of Eagle Creek Cave
Michael G. Petit Photographs by Robert W. Mitchell 50 The Natural History of Medieval Women
David Herlihy 56 Kites Of Santiago Sacatepequez
Kenneth W. Smith Photographs by Hans Namuth 68
The Shark's Sixth Sense Adrianus J. Kalmign
and Kenneth Jon Rose 76 Who Runs the Grand Canyon?
Fred B. Eiseman, Jr. 82 A Naturalist at Large: Resisting Pollution
Celso Bianco 94
Cajun Country Review by Steven L. Del Sesto 98
A Matter of Taste: How to Cook a Snoek
Raymond Sokolov 104
The Market 108
The Eggshell's Story
Photographs by David Scharf 1 1 1
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 1 14
Additional Reading 116
Announcements 118
April No. 4
Authors 5
The Last American Parakeet Doreen Buscemi 10
This View of Life: Bathybius Meets Eozoon
Stephen Jay Gould 16
Blackouts and Births Janos Balog 26
The Serendipitous Mouse Paul K. Anderson 38
Semana Santa In Seville David D. Gregory
Photographs by Ken Haas 44
Seeds in Flight Willard K. Martin 56
The Big Blast at Santorini
Stephen Sparks and Haraldur Sigurdsson 70
When Ignorance is Bliss Review by Edward Edelson 78
The Market 82
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 84
Sky Reporter: Hunting the Elusive Vela Pulsar
Stephen P. Maran 86 A Matter of Taste: As a Matter of Fat
Raymond Sokolov 92
Announcements 98
Additional Reading 100
May No. 5
Authors 2
This View of Life: Were Dinosaurs Dumb?
Stephen Jay Gould 9 Airs, Waters, and Places: On New Guinea Tapeworms
AND Jewish Grandmothers .... Robert S. Desowitz 22 A Naturalist at Large: End of a Small Wonder
William K. Hartmann 30
Drumming Along the Perak Edward O. Moll 36
Short Ungulates G. Causey Whitlow 44
Death by Decree Colin TurnbuU 50
The Fierce and Fatherly Siamese Fighting Fish
Photographs by Jacques Six 68 George Edwards: Depictor of "Nondescripts"
Sarah Blaffer Hrdy 72
Sky Reporter: Pebbles Out in Space.. Keith Hindlcy 82
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 86
The Market 88
Silent Music and Invisible Art.. Edmund Carpenter 90 A Matter of Taste; Slippery Characters
Raymond Sokolov 100
The Mythic Indian Review by Peter Farb 104
Additional Reading Ill
At the Museum 114
June-July No, 6
Authors 2
Death Be Not Strange Peter A. Metcalf 6
This View of Life: Flaws in a Victorian Veil
Stephen Jay Gould 16 A Matter of Taste: Montezuma's Bequest
Raymond Sokolov 30
Petra of the Nabataeans Philip C. Hammond 42
Terns in Traffic Michael Gochfeld
Photographs by Allen Rokach 54
Swamp Dwellers of Bahia John Cordell 62
Plants in the Hostile Atmosphere. .. Dan B. Walker
Photographs by William J. Dederick 74 Sky Reporter: Now You See It; Now You Don't
Stephen P. Maran 84
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 88
The Market 90
The War Between Indians and Animals
Calvin Martin 92
Hand-hewn Homes Review 98
Additional Reading 103
At the Museum 106
August-September No, 7
Authors 2
This View of Life; The Great Scablands Debate
Stephen Jay Gould 12 A Matter of Taste: Behind the Tines
Raymond Sokolov 22 A Naturalist at Large: Notes From a Rice Paddy
Edwin Kessler 34 The Enduring Great Lakes
edited by John Rousmaniere 46 Props and Actors on a Massive Stage, by Clifford
H. Mortimer The Blue-Green Algae Keep Coming, by Eugene F.
Stoermer The Bald Eagles Return, by Sergej Postupalsky The Decline of Lake Plants, by Ronald L. Stuckey Pollutants from the Sky, by Jon I. Parker Legacy of a Thirsty Society, by Steven A.
Spigarelli The Salmon May Make It, by Stanford H. Smith "You'll Always Get Home," by Russell McKee The Computerized Ecosystem, by Wayland R. Swain Winners of the 1978 Natural History Photographic
Competition 98
Letters 116
Sky Reporter; Strange Doings on Io
Richard Goody 120
The Market 126
The Scientific Mind Review by Gerald Feinberg 128
Additional Reading 135
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 138
At the Museum 140
October No. 8
Authors 2
Genetic Crossroads Laurence E. Karp 8
A Matter of Taste; Shell Game . .Raymond Sokolov 24 The Politics of Black Power Handshakes
John Baugh 32 This View of Life; Women's Brains
Stephen Jay Gould 44
Emergence of the Green Darner Jon Farrar 52
Under and Around a Prairie Dog Town
Harvey L. Gunderson 56
Ceramics of the Canelos Quichua Dorothea S.
Whitten and Norman E. Whitten. Jr. 90
An Owl Hunt Jean K. Lauber 100
The Modern Look of Ice Age Art .... Gerald Oster 108
Oceans, Glaciers, and Mists Richard Goody 1 14
A Tale of Technology Gone Sour
Review by Frank Graham, Jr. 124
Bios: Sex and the Soybean Arthur W. Galston 132
Sky Reporter: Deep in the Heart of the Milky W.w
Stephen P. Maran 142
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 148
The Market 150
Additional Reading 152
At the Museum 154
November No. 9
Authors 2
Saga of Steller's Sea Cow Delphine Haley 9
This View of Life: The Panda's Peculiar Thumb
Stephen Jay Gould 20 A Matter of Taste: Root Awakening
Raymond Sokolov 34
Trekking in the Amazon Forest .... Dennis Werner 42 Beware: Nonpoisonous Snakes
Sherman A. Minton, Jr. 56 Where "Mabel" May Mean "Sea B.ass".. Jack Stuster
Photographs by Stephen Frisch 64
The Triumphant Trumpeter Paul A. Johnsgard 72
The History of Bloodletting .... Matthew J. Kluger 78
How the West Was Won Gerald Carson 84
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 100
Sky Reporter; The Allende Meteorite
George W. Wetherill 102 From the Woodlands ... to the Sea
Review by Scott McVay 108
The M.\rket 118
Additional Reading 120
At the Museum 122
December No 10
Authors 2
A New Plague of Locusts.. Christopher F. Hemming 6
This View of Life; Senseless Signs of History
Stephen Jay Gould 22 A Matter of Taste; Liver Trouble
Raymond Sokolov 32
Salmon Recapture Connecticut Stephen Fay 38
The Onslaught Against Hawaii's Tree Snails
Alan D. Hart 46
Hard Times among the Neanderthals.. Erik Trinkaus 58 Mysterious Monthly Rhythms
John D. Palmer and Judith E. Goodenough 64
Slime Molds John Tyler Bonner
Photographs by David Scharf 70
The Inner Eskimo Review by Jean L. Briggs 80
Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson 88
The Market 90
Sky Reporter; Mission to Venus .... Richard Goody 92
Additional Reading 100
At the Museum 102
INDEX TO \OLLME LXXXVII
AUTHORS AND TITLES
Alexander, H., Abundant Birds of
BiiRiNGiA, Feb.. p. 46 Ames. MM., Tovil: Exorcism by
White Magic, Jan.. p. 42 Anderson, P.K., The Serendipitous
Mouse, Apr., p. 38 Aronson, L., Ibex in Israel,
J^n,, p. 50
Bilikci, A.,BuzKASin, Feb.. p. 54 Balog, J., Blackouts and Births.
Apr., p. 26 haugh. J., The Politics of Black
PdWER Handshakes, Oct., p. 32 Bianco, C. Resisting Pollution.
Mar., p. 94 Bnnner, J.T.. Slime Molds, Dec. p. 70 Bnggs. J.L,, Review, Dec. p. 80 Buscemi, D.. The Last American
PARAKEE^r, Apr., p. 10
Cade, W., Of Cricket Song and Sex,
.Ian., p. 64 Carpenter, E., Silent Music and
Invisible Art, May, p. 90 Carson. C, How the West Was Won,
Nov., p. 84 Coffey, M., The Dust Storms,
Feb., p. 72 Cole, C.J., The Value of Virgin
Birth. Jan., p. 56 Cordcll, J., Swamp Dwellers of
Bahia, June. p. 62
D
Dederick, W.J., Plants in the Hostile Atmosphere, June, p, 74
Del Seslo. S.L.. Review, Mar., p, 98
Desowitz. R.S., On New Guinea Tape- worms AND Jewish Grandmothers, May. p. 22
Drury, W.H„ Abundant Birds of Behingia. Feb., p. 46
Edelson, E„ Review, Apr. p. 78 Eiseky. L., Thoreau's Unfinished
Business, Mar., p. 6 Eiseman. F.B., Jr., Who Runs the
Grand Canyon? Mar., p. 82
Ewing. R.C., The Elegant Symmetry of Crystals. Feb., p. 64
Farb, P., Review, May, p. 104 Farrar, J., Emergence of the
Green Darner. Oct., p. 52 Fay, S., Salmon Recapture
Connecticut, Dec, p. 38 Feinberg, G.. Review, Aug., p. 128 Frisch, S., Where "Mabel" May Mean
"Sea Bass," Nov., p. 64
Galsion, A.W., A Living Fossil,
Feb., p. 42; Sex and the Soybean,
Oct.. p. 132 Gerlach, L.P., The Great Energy
Standoff. Jan., p. 22 Gochfeld. M.. Terns in Traffic,
June, p. 54 Goodenough, J.E., Mysterious
Monthly Rhythms. Dec. p. 64 Goody. R., Climate and the Planets,
Jan., p. 84; Strange Doings on
lo. Aug.. p. 120; Oceans. Glaciers,
AND Mists. Oct.. p. 114; Mission
to Venus, Dec, p. 92 Gould, S.J., Nature's Odd Couples,
Jan.. p. 38; An Early Start.
Feb.. p. 10; Crazy Old Randolph
KlRKPATRicK, Mar,, p. 20;
Bathybius Meets Eozoon. Apr..
p. 16; Were Dinosaurs Dumb?
May, p. 9; Flaws in a Victorian
Veil. June, p. 16; The Great
SCABLANDS DEBATE, Aug., p. 12;
Women's Brains, Oct., p. 44;
The Panda's Peculiar Thumb, Nov.,
p. 20; Senseless Signs of History,
Dec. p. 22 Graham, F,, Jr., Review, Oct.,
p. 124 Gregory. D.D., S/:.i/.-i AVi Sama in
Seville, Apr., p, 44 Gunderson, H.L.. Under and Around
A Prairie Dog Town. Oct., p. 56
H
Haas, K.. Skmaxa Santa in Seville,
Apr., p. 44 Haley, D., Saga of Steller's Sea
Cow, Nov., p. 9 Hammond. P.C.. Petra of the
Nabataeans, June, p. 42 Hannemann, Y., Tovil: Exorcism by
White Magic, Jan.. p. 42 Hart, A.D., The Onslaught Against
Hawaii's Tree Snails. Dec. p. 46 Hartmann, W.K.. End of a Small
Wonder. May. p. 30 Harwood. M., Review, Feb., p. 98 Hemming. C.F., A New Plague of
Locusts. Dec, p. 6 Herlihy. D.. The Natural History of
Medieval Women, Mar., p. 56 Hindley, K.. Pebbles Out in Space,
May, p. 82 Hrdy. S.B.. George Edwards: DtPic-
TOR OF "Nondescripts," May, p. 72
Johnsgard, P.A., The Triumphant Trumpeter, Nov.. p. 72
K
Kalmign. A. J.. The Shark's Sixth Sense, Mar., p. 76
Karp, L.E., Genetic Crossroads, Oct., p. 8
Kessler, E.. Notes From a Rice Paddy. Aug., p. 34
Kluger, M,J,. The History of Blood- letting. Nov.. p. 78
Koiiak, C.P., Ritual at McDonald's. Jan.. p. 74
Lauber, J.K., An Owl Hunt. Oct., p. 100
M
McKee, R., "You'll Always Get
Home." Aug.. p. 89 McVay, S.. Review, Nov., p. 108 Maran. S.P.. Strung-Out Stars, Feb., p. 30; Hunting the Elusive Vela Pulsar, Apr., p. 86; Now You See It; Now You Don't. June, p. 84; Deep in the Heart of the Milky Way. Ocl, p. 142 Martin, C. The War Between Indians
and Animals, June, p, 92 Martin, W.K.. Seeds in Flight,
Apr,, p. 56 Meicalf. PA.. Death Be Not Strange,
June, p. 6 Minton, S.A., Jr., Beware:
Nonpoisonous Snakes. Nov., p. 56 Mitchell, R.W., Imperiled Bats
of Eagle Creek Cave. Mar., p. 50 Moll. E.O., Drumming Along the
Perak, May. p. 36 Montagu. A,, Review. Jan., p. 96 Mortimer. C.H.. Props and Actors on A Massive Stage, Aug., p. 51
N Namuth. H^. Kites of Santiago
Sacatepequez, Mar., p. 68 Nicholson, T,D., Celestial Events,
Jan.. p. 104; Feb., p. 104;
Mar., p. 114; Apr., p. 84; May,
p. 86; June, p. 88; Aug., p.
138; Oct., p. 148; Nov., p. 100;
Dec. p. 88
O
Oppenhcimer. M.. What Ark Comets
Made Of? Mar., p. 42 Oster, G., The Modern Look of Ice
Age Art, Oct., p. 108
Palmer, J.D., Mysterious Monthly
Rhythms, Dec, p. 64 Parker, J.L. Pollutants From the
Sky. Aug,, p. 70 Pastner. S., A Nudge from the Hand
of God. Mar., p. 32
Petit, M.G., Imperiled Bats of Eagle Creek Cave, Mar., p. 50
Postupalsky, S„ The Bald Eagles Return, Aug., p. 62
Rokach, A., Terns in Traffic,
June, p. 54 Rose. K.J.. The Shark's Sixth
Sense, Mar,, p, 76 Rousmaniere, J.. ed„ Ironies of the
Great Lakes, Aug., p. 46 Rubin, G., Ibex in Israel, Jan..
p. 50
S
Scharf, D., The Eggshell's Story,
Mar., p. Ill; Slime Molds,
Dec. p. 70 Sheldon. J.. BuzKASHl. Feb.. p. 54 Sigurdsson, H., The Big Blast at
Santorini. Apr., p. 70 Six. J,. The Fierce and Fatherly
Siamese Fighting Fish. May, p.
68 Smith, K.W., Kites of Santiago
Sacatepe'ouez. Mar., p. 68 Smith. S.H., The Salmon May Make
It. Aug., p. 80 Sokolov, R., Grounds for Delight.
Jan,, p. 8; Pease Be With You.
Feb., p. 38; How to Cook a Snoek,
Mar., p. 104; As a Matter of Fat.
Apr., p. 92; Slippery Characters.
May. p. 100: Montezuma's Bequest.
June. p. 30; Behind the Tines.
Aug,, p. 22; Shell Game. Oct..
p. 24; Root Awakening, Nov.,
p. 34; Liver Trouble, Dec, p. 32 Sparks. S.. The Big Blast at
Santorini, Apr., p. 70 Spigarelli. S.A., Legacy of a Thirsty
Society, Aug., p. 76 Sloermer, E.F., The Blue-Green Algae
Keep Coming, Aug., p. 59 Stuckey, R.L., The Decline of Lake
Plants. Aug., p. 67 Stusler, J., Where "Mabel" May
Mean "Sea Bass." Nov., p. 64 Swain, W.R., The Computerized
Ecosystem, Aug., p. 95 T Thresher, R.E., The Ornamental Eye,
Feb.. p. 84 Trinkaus. E., Hard Times among the
Neanderthals, Dec, p. 58 TurnbuU, C. Death by Decree,
May. p, 50
W
Walker, D.B.. Plants in the
Hostile Atmosphere. June. p. 74 Wax. R.H.. Review, Feb.. p. 90 Werner. D.. Trekking in the Amazon
Forest, Nov.. p. 42 Wclherill. G.W., The AlleNDE
Meteorite. Nov., p. 102 Whitten. D.S.. and N.E., Jr.,
Ceramics of the Canelos Quichua.
Oct., p. 90 Whittovv. G.C. Short Ungulates.
May, p. 44
SUBJECT MATTER
Afghanistan. Feb.. p. 54 Agassis. Louis. June. p. 16 AIRS. WATERS, AND PLACES
New Guinea Tapeworms, May. p. 22 Algae, Aug.. p. 59 Allende metcorilc. Nov.. p. 102 Amazon forest, Mekranoii Indians.
Nov., p. 42 Americana. Nov., p. 84 AMERICAN INDIANS
Canelos Quichua. Ocl.. p, 90
and Fur irade. June, p. 92
Mekranoii. Nov.. p. 42
Mysteries of. May, p. 90 American Wesi. Nov., p. 84 Amoeba, Dec. p. 70 Antelope, May. p. 44 ANTHROPOLOGY
Baluch of Pakistan, Mar., p. 32
Black power, Oct.. p. 32
Buddhism, Jan.. p. 42
Capital punishmeni. May, p. 50
Fishing gear. BrazJl. June. p. 62
Food, Mar,, p, 104
Fossils, human, Dec, p. 58
Funeral riles. June. p. 6
Ice Age cave paintings. Oct., p. 108
Kites, Mar., p. 68
McDonald's, Jan,, p. 74
Minoan civilization, Apr., p. 70
North American Indians see American Indians
Ruins of Petra. June. p. 42
Turkoman. Feb,, p. 54
Uzbek. Feb.. p. 54 Aquatic flora, Aug.. p. 66 ART
American Indian. Oct.. p. 90
Ice Age, Oct., p. 108
Medieval. Oct., p. 100 Asteroids. May, p. 82 ASTRONOMY
Allende meteorite. Nov., p. 102
Asteroids. May. p. 82
Celestial Events, Jan., p. 104; Feb.. p. 104; Mar., p. 114; Apr., p. 84; May. p. 86; June. p. 88; Aug.. p. 138; Oct., p. 148; Nov,, p. 100; Dec. p. 88
Comets, Mar., p. 42
lo, Jupiter's satellite. Aug.. p. 120
Mars, Jan.. p. 84; Oct., p. 114
Milky Way, Feb., p. 30; Qci.. p, 142
Sky Reporter. Feb.. p. 30: Mar., p, 42; Apr., p. 86; May. p. 82; June. p. 84; Aug.. p. 120; Oct.. p. 142; Nov.. p. 102; Dec. p. 92
Strung-out stars, Feb.. p. 30
Variable stars, June. p. 84
Vela pulsar. Apr., p. 86
Venus. Jan.. p, 84; Oct.. p. 114; Dec, p. 92 Astrophysics. Mar., p. 42; Oct..
p. 114
i.
Aimosphere, lerrcsirial. Jan..
p. 84 Bald eagles, Aug,, p. 62 Balueh iribc, Mar,, p. .12 Barbed wire. Nov.. p. 84 Baihybius. Apr., p, 16 Bais, Mar., p. 50 Bering Sea. Feb.. p. 46 Biological clocks. Dec. p. 64 BIOLOGY
Brain, Oct., p. 44
Cellular slime molds, Dec. p. 70
Biological clocks, Dec. p, 64
Eggshell, Mar., p. 1 II
Genes, Oci., p. 8
Origin of life. Feb., p. 10
I'lani cells. June, p. 74
Soybeans. Oct.. p. 1.12
Symbiosis. Jan.. p. 38 BIOS
Living fossil plani, Feb,, p, 42
Soybean. Oct,, p, 132 BIRDS
Bald eagles, Aug.. p. 62
Bering Sea, Feb.. p. 4fi
Carolina parakeet. Apr., p, 10
Owls. Qci.. p. 100
Swans, Nov.. p, 72
Terns, June, p. 54 Birlh. Oct,, p. 8 Black power. Oct.. p. 32 Bloodlciiing, Nov., p. 78 BOTANY
Chickpeas, Feb., p. 38
Choeolaic. June, p. 30
Coffee bean, Jan.. p, 8
Lake plants. Aug., p. 66
Plani cells. June. p. 74
Rice, Aug., p. 34
Seeds. Apr., p, 56 Brains, male and female. Oci,.
p. 44 Brazil. June, p. 62; Nov.. p. 42 Bu/kashi game, Feb.. p. 54 Buddhism. Sri Unka, Jan,, p. 42 Canada, June, p. 92 Canolos Qulchua, Ecuador Indians,
Oci., p. 90 Capital punishmcni. May. p. 50 Cave puinlings. Del., p. 108 Celestial Events m-v Astronomy Ceramics. Ecuador Indians. Oct.,
p. 90 Chickpeas. Feb.. Chocolate, June, Climaic, Jan., p. 84 Coffee, Jan.. p. 8 Comets, Mar. p. 42 Crayfish, Oct., p, 24 Crcic, volcano (Santorini). Apr..
p. 70 Crickets. Jan., p. 64 Crystals, symmetry of. Feb.. p. 64 Death. May. p. 50; June. p. 6 Deer and antelope. May, p. 44 Dinosaurs, May. p. 9 Dragonflies, Oct., p. 52 Dust storms, Feb., p. 72
38
ECOLOGY
Grand Canyon, Mar., p. 82
Great Lakes Supplement. Aug., p. 46
Seeds, Apr., p. 56
ECOSYSTEMS
Computerized, Aug.. p. 95
Hermit crabs. Jan.. p. 38 Ecuador. Canelos Qulchua Indians,
Oct.. p. 90 Edwards. George. May, p. 72 Eggshell. Mar- p. M I
ENERGY
New York City blackout. Apr., p. 26 Standoff. Jan,, p. 22
ENVIRONMENT
Great Lakes. Aug., pp. 48, 50, 59
Lake plants, Aug., p. 66
and Mice, Apr., p. 36
Plants. June. p. 74
Pollution. Mar., p. 94 Eo^oon, Apr., p. 16 Erosion, Washington State. Aug.,
p, 12 Ethnohistory, June, p, 92 Etiquette. Aug.. p, 22
EVOLUTION
Bathybius, Apr., p, 16
Linguistics. Dec, p. 22 Excavation. Petra, June, p. 42 Exhibition. Museum. Oct., p. 108 Exorcism, Sri Lanka. Jan., p. 42 Fais and oils, Apr., p. 92 Ferliliiy, Oct., p. 8
FISHES
Eel, May, p. 100 Reef. Feb.. p. 84 Salmon, Aug., p. 80; Dec, p. 38
Sharks. Mar., p. 76 Siamese fighting. May. p. 68 Fishing, June, p. 62; Aug.. p. 88; Nov., p, 64
FOOD
Chickpeas, Feb.. p. 38
Chocolate. June, p. 30
Coffee. Jan., p, 8
Crayfish. Oct., p, 24
Eels. May, p. 100
Fats and oils, Apr., p, 92
and Forks, Aug., p. 22
Liver, Dec. p. 32
McDonald's, Jan.. p. 74
Manioc root, Nov.. p. 34
Pork. Mar., p. 104
Rice, Aug:, p. 34 Fossils, human. Dec, p. 58 Funeral rites. June, p. 6 Fur trade. Canada. June, p, 92 Games. Buzkashi. Feb., p. 54 Genetics, Oct., p. S GEOLOGY
Grand Canyon, Mar., p. 82
Great Lakes. Aug.. p. 46
Saniorini (Crete), Apr., p. 70
Scablands, Aug.. p. 12
Volcanic crater field. May. p. 30
Goats, Jan., p. 50
Grand Canyon, Mar., p. 82
Great Lakes Supplement, Aug.. p. 46
Green darner, Oct., p. 52
Guatemala, Mar., p. 68
Hatchery, salmon, Aug.. p. 80
Hawaii, May, p. 30: Dec. p. 46
Hermit crabs, Jan,, p. 38
HISTORY
Life. Feb., p. 10
Medieval women, Mar., p. 56
Science. May, p. 9; Dec, p. 22
Ibex, wild goals, Jan.. p. 50
Ice Age art. Oct.. p. 108
INSECTS 1 Crickets, Jan.. p. 64
Dragonflies, Oct.. p, 52 Locusts. Dec, p. 6
INVERTEBRATES
Amoebae. Dec. p. 70
Crayfish. Oct.. p. 24
Hermit crabs, Jan., p. 38
Tapeworms. May. p. 22
Tree snails. Dec. p. 46 lo. Jupiter's satellite, Aug., p. 120 Israel. Jan.. p. 50 Jupiter's salellitc, Aug.. p. 120 Kakabek. living fossil plant.
Feb.. p. 42 Kirkpalrick, R.. Mar., p. 20 Kites, Mar., p. 68 Letters, Aug.. p, 1 16 Linguistics. Dec, p. 22 Lizards. Jan., p. 56 Locusts. Dec, p. 6 McDonald's. Jan., p. 74 Magic, Sri Lanka. Jan.. p. 42 Malaysian turtles. May, p. 36
MAMMALS
Antelope. May, p. 44
Bats. Mar., p. 50
Deer, May, p. 44
Goats. Jan.. p. 50
Mice. Apr,, p. 38
Panda. Nov.. p. 20
Prairie dog. Oct.. p. 56
Sea cow. Nov., p. 9 Manioc. Nov.. p. 34 Mars. Jan., p. 84; Oct.. p, 114
MATTER OF TASTE
Chickpeas, Feb.. p. 38
Chocolate, June. p. 30
Coffee, Jan., p. 8
CrayOsh, Oct., p. 24
Eels. May. p. 100
Fats and oils, Apr., p. 92
Forks. Aug.. p, 22
Liver. Dec. p. 32
Manioc. Nov, p. 34
Pork, Mar., p. 104 Medicine, bloodletting. Nov.. p. 78;
Tovil rile. Jan.. p. 42 Medieval art. Oct., p. 100 Mekranoti Indians. Nov., p. 42 Meteorite. Allende, Nov.. p. ID2 Meteorology, Aug., p. 34
Mice, Apr., p. 38
Milky Way. Feb., p. 30; Oct., p.
142 Mineralogy. Feb., p. 65 Minoan civilization. Apr., p. 70 Mouse deer, May. p, 44 Music and art. North American
Indians. May. p. 90 Nabalaea. June, p. 42 National Park Service. Mar., p. 82 NATURALIST AT LARGE
Pollution. Mar., p. 94
Rice paddy. Aug., p. 34
Volcanic crater field. May, p. 30 Neanderthal fossils, Dec. p. 58 New Guinea tapeworms. May, p. 22 New York City blackout. Apr., p. 26 North American Indians see
American Indians Owls, Oct.. p. 100 Pakistan, Mar, p. 32 Paleobotany, Kakabek. Feb., p. 42 Paleoecology. Bats, Mar., p. 50 Paleontology, Feb., p. 42; Apr..
p. 16 Panda. Nov.. p. 20 Parasites, tapeworms. May. p. 22 Parthenogenesis. Jan., p. 56 Pctra. June. p. 42 Photographic competition awards,
Aug., p. 98 Planklonic flora, Aug., p. 59 Plants. June. p. 74; Aug.. p. 66 Politics, Oct., p. 32 Pollution, Mar., p. 94; Aug., pp.
70, 76 Pork cookery. Mar,, p. 104 Racism. June. p. 16 Reef fishes, Feb., p. 84 RELIGION
Buddhism, Jan.. p. 42
Islam. Mar,, p. 32
Rituals. Jan., p. 42; Apr., p. 44 REPTILES
Lizard. Jan.. p. 56
Snake, Nov.. p. 56
Tunic, May. p, 36 Rice paddy. Aug.. p. 34 River running. Colorado River,
Mar., p. 82 Sagillarius, Oct.. p. 142 Salmon. Aug., p. 80; Dec, p. 38 Scablands, Aug.. p. 12 Science of history. May. p. 9; Dec.
p. 22 Sea birds. June. p. 54; Feb. p. 46 Sea cow. Nov.. p. 9 Sea mammals. Nov., p. 9 Seeds, Apr., p. 56 Sharks. Mar., p. 76 Slime molds. Dec. p. 70 Sky Reporter see Astronomy Snakes, Nov.. p. 56 Solar system, theories of. Nov.,
p. 102 South American Indians see
American Indians Soybeans, Oct., p. 132 Spain, Apr., p. 44
Sri Lanka, Buddhism, Jan.. p. 42 Stars, variable, June, p. 84; formation of, Feb., p. 30 Swans. Nov., p. 72 Symbiosis. Jan.. p. 38 Tapeworms. May, p. 22 Technology, energy, Jan., p. 22 Terns, June. p. 54
THIS VIEW OF LIFE
Agassiz. Louis, June, p. 16
Dinosaurs, May, p.' 9
Earth, Feb., p. 10
Evolution. Apr., p. 16
Kirkpatrick, Randolph, Mar., p. 20'
Panda. Nov., p. 20
Scablands, Aug.. p. 12
Signs of history, Dec. p. 22
Symbiosis. Jan.. p. 38
Women's brains. Oct., p. 44 Thoreau. H.D., Mar., p. 6 Tovil ceremony. Sri Lanka. Jan.,
p. 42 Tree snails, Dec. p. 46 Tropical medicine, May, p. 22 Turtle. May. p. 36 Variable star, June. p. 84 Vela pulsar, Apr., p. 86 Venus. Jan., p. 84; Oct.. p. 1 14.
Dec. p. 92 Volcanic crater field. May,, p.
JO Volcano. Apr., p, 70 Water, different forms of. Oct..
p. 114 WEATHER
Dust storms. Feb.. p. 72
and Planets, Jan.. p. 84 Western prairie, Nov.. p. 84 WOMEN
Brains of. Oct.. p. 44
Medieval. Mar., p, 56 Zoological illustrations. May.
p. 72
Books in Revii;w
Audubon Society Field Guide lo
North American Birds. Tlie. 2 vols..
Eastern Region, Western Region,
Feb.. p. 98 Ein- yctopaedia of Ignorance, lite,
Apr., p. 78 Cxperieticing Science, Aug.. p. 128 lltiifiaiikind, Jan., p. 96 Last and First Eskimos, The.
Dec. p. 80 Letters From the Field, Feb.. p. 90 Log Cabin, The, June, p. 98 Louisiana Cajuns, Mar. p. 98 Natural History of the Whale. Tlie.
Natural World of the 'Big Thicket,
Vie, Nov., p. 108 Pesticide Conspiracy, Tlie, Oct.,
p. 124 White Man's Indian. Tlie.
May, p. 104
i
*'
K
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if
i
\
1M3
A promise kept.
When Seville was first introduced, it was to be a new kind of American luxury car. International insize. Cadillac in craftsmanship. Timeless in styling. Some wondered. Seville has kept its promise. With subtle refinements to enhance its original concept. Because of our ongoing quest for perfection, Seville is even more desirable today . . . one of the finest production cars built anywhere in the world. Your Cadillac dealer invites you to experience Seville. It's the only way.
BY CADILLAC
NATURAL HISTORY
Incorporating Nature Magazine Vol. LXXXVIl. No. I January 1978
American Museum of Natural History
Robert G. Goelel. President
Thomas D. Nicholson, Director
Alan Ternes, Editor
Thomas Page, Designer
Board of Editors:
Sally Lindsay, Frederick Hartmann.
Christopher Hallowell,
Ann Marie Cunningham
Carol Breslin, Book Reviews Editor
Florence G. Edelstein, Copy Chief
Angela Soccodato, Art Asst.
Katharine D'Agosta, Editorial Asst.
Lillian Berger
Rosamond Dana, Publications Editor
Editorial Advisers:
Dorothy E. Bhss, Mark Chartrand,
Niles Eldredge, Margaret Mead,
Thomas D. Nicholson, Gerard Piel,
Martin Print, Francois Vuilleumier
David D. Ryus, Publisher Mauricio Sola, Production Manager Ernestine Weindorf, Administrative Asst. Eileen O'Keefe, Business Asst. Theresa Forney
Ann Brown, Circulation Manager Mary Sue Rynecki, Asst. Circulation Mgr. Carolyn Robinson, Marketing Manager Elvira Lopez, Asst. Harriet Walsh
Publication Office: American Museum of Natural Historv, Central Park West at 79th Street. New York. N. Y. 10024. Published monthly. October through May: bimonthly June to September. Subscriptions: SIO.OO a year. In Canada and all other countries: $12.00 a year. Second-class postage paid at New York, N. Y. and at additional offices. Copyriglil © 1977 by American Museum of Natural History. No part of this periodical may be reproduced without written consent of Natural History. The opinions expressed by autlwrs do not necessarily reflect the policy of the American Museum. Natural History incorporating Nature Magazine is indexed in Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature. Advertising Office: Natural History. 420 Lexington Avenue. New York. N. Y. 10017 Telephone: 1212) 687-2424
Notice to Members: New and additional membership support received since October I, 1976, will assist the American Museum of Natural History in qualifying for federal matching grunts awarded by the National Endowment for the Humanities.
Change of address notices, undeliveruble
copies, orders for subscriptions,
and other mad items are to be sent to
Natural History
Memtwrship Services, Box 6000
Des Moines, Iowa 50340
4 Authors
8 A Matter of Taste Raymond Sokolov Grounds for Delight
22 The Great Energy Standoff Luther P. Gerlach
When Minnesota farmers and energy planners meet, sparks fly.
38 This View of Life Stephen Jay Gould Nature's Odd Couples
42 Tovil: Exorcism by White Magic Michael M. Ames, photographs by Yvonne Hannemann With Buddha's power, the dancers keep the demons in their place.
SO Ibex in Israel Len Aronson, photographs by Gail Rubin
The unlucky animal has captured our imagination for millennia.
56 The Value of Virgin Birth Charles J. Cole
When time is short, a population may be better off without dad.
64 Of Cricliet Song and Sex William Cade
A singing cricket leads a sweet — but short — life.
74 Rituals at McDonald's Conrad P. Kottak
What is the secret of this fast-food chain's outstanding success?
84 Climate and the Planets Richard Goody
By looking at other atmospheres, we can learn something about our own.
96 Books in Review Ashley Montagu The Human Condition
104 Celestial Events Thomas D. Nicholson
106 The Market
108 Additional Reading
110 Announcements
Cover: A tovil performer from Sri Lanka assumes the appearance and role of a demon, which he will exorcise after dancing into trance. Photograph by Yvonne Hannemann. Story on page 42.
ill
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All of the world's great high-per- formance cars have raced there- most have had their day.
Yet, few cars— and certainly no luxury sedans— have achieved a more impressive record on the Nurburgnng than those built by the Bavarian Motor Works of Munich, Germany
Luxury sedans? Yes. But luxury sedans built by racing engineers. German engineers who believe that
ql 1977 BMW ot North America. Inc
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PERFORMANCE PERFECTED ON THE RACETRACK.
While It IS, of course, feasible to develop an acceptable automobile in the relative vacuum of the test track and the laboratory it is virtually impossible to simulate the perfection demanded by motor racing.
Motor racing enables BMW engineers to develop ideas and expenment without the inhibiting constraints of economics or the cost of production— a crucial role in the
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And the BMW 530i is a direct reflection of this cache of engineenng intelligence.
Its suspension— independent on all four wheels— IS quick and clean through the corners; its steering sharp and accurate.
Its four-speed manual transmis- sion (automatic is available) slips pre- cisely into each gear And its acceleration comes up smoothly with the turbine-like whine so charactens- tic of the justifiably renowned 3-liter BMW engine.
9^
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PARTICIPATION NOT ISOLATION.
The interior of the conventional luxury sedan is deliberately engi- neered to isolate the dnver from the mechanical workings of the automo- bile, the world outside and the road beneath.
The intenor of the BMW 530i is carefully engineered to include the driver as one of the integral, function- ing parts of the car itself— the human part that completes the mechanical circuit.
Careful study has been made of the critical interrelation between seat location, visual position, steering
wheel, pedals and controls.
Luxurious? Yes. Yet all functions have been assiduously planned to facilitate total, precise control at all times, under all conditions.
So successful is this integration of man and machine that when you drive the BMW 530i for the first time, you will experience an almost total oneness with the car A unique feel- ing of effortless control which, if you're accustomed to conventional luxury sedans, will be completely and pleasantly new to you.
Surprising? Only to those who have never driven a BMW.
As the editors of Motor Trend magazine observed, "The reaction to a BMW is always the same. The first time dnver takes the wheel and after a few minutes no other automobile will ever be the same again."
If the thought of owning such a car intngues you, call us anytime, toll-free, at 800-243-6000 (Conn. 1-800-882-6500) and we'll arrange a thorough test drive for you at your convenience.
THE ULTIMATE DRIVING MACHINE.
Bavarian Motor Works, Munich, Germany.
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Michael M. Ames, professor of anthropology and director of the Anthropology Museum at the Uni- versity of British Columbia, was instrumental in giving visitors un- limited access to everything the museum owns, thanks to a system, initiated in 1976, that he describes
as "visible storage." Although he did his first research among North- west Coast Indians, Ames became interested in Sri Lanka while pur- suing Southeast Asian Studies in graduate school. He has made three field trips to the island to study religion and social change.
For the past ten years Len Aron- son has worked for the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel. The behavior and ecology of the Nubian ibex has been the focus of his recent fieldwork, which ties in with the Israeli government's desire
to preserve this species. As senior instructor at the Ein-Gedi Field Sta- tion, located on the shores of the Dead Sea, Aronson is also deeply involved in educational programs to increase the public's awareness of its natural surroundings.
An associate curator in the De- partment of Herpetology, Charles J. Cole began his career at the American Museum of Natural His- tory after receiving his Ph. D. from the University of Arizona, His study of parthenogenesis in lizards was an outgrowth of his investiga-
tion into evolutionary relationships of reptiles and amphibians and how species are formed. Cole's herpet- ological perambulations have taken him to many a lonely stretch in the Southwest and in Mexico. Asked about his future research plans, he responded, "More of the same."
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QUESTERS WORLD OF NATURE ^ TOURS
"Nature tour" has a special meaning when you travel with Questers. We are the o«/y professional travel company specializing ex- clusively in nature tours.
Our approach in planning Worldwide Na- ture Tours is to provide you with the broadest possible opportunity of experiencing for yourself the natural history and culture of each area we explore. With the leadership of an accompanying naturalist, we search out the plants and animals, birds and flowers. . . rain forests, mountains, and tundra . . . sea- shore, lakes, and swamps of the regions we visit. We also study the architecture, archae- ology, museum collections, temples, and cus- toms of the people.
Varying in length from 4 to 36 days, Ques- ters Worldwide Nature Tours travel to virtu- ally every part of the world. Groups are small, and early reservations are therefore sug- gested. Listed below is a sampling of the 31 destinahons offered in 1978. Detailed itin- eraries for each tour, and the current Direc- tory of Worldwide Nature Tours outlining the complete 1978 program, are available from your travel agent or Questers.
CALL OR WRITE TODAY!
WORLDWIDE NATURE TOURS
1978 DEPARTURES
(Partial listing)
THE AMERICAS
Everglades: 11 days, March 30 & November 9 • Ba]a Whale Watch: 9 days, February 2 • Hawaii: 15 days, February 12, April 9, July 16, October 8 & December 1 7 • Alaska (& ophonal r^BlLOFS): 17 days, June 10, July 1 & 22, & August 12 • Guatemala: 19 days, January 28, February 18, March 18, November 4 & De- cember 16 • Galapagos; 15 days, March 2, May 4, July 6 & October 19 • Peru: 23 days, April 8, June 10, July 22 & November 4.
EUROPE
Iceland (& optional Greenland): 16 days, June 9 & 30, July 21 & August 11 • ISLANDS & Highlands of Scotland: 25 days. May 26, June 16, July 14 & August 25 • Switzerland: 17 days, June 16, July 21 & August 18.
ASIA AND AFRICA
Kashmir & Ladakh: 24 days, July 7, August 4 & September 8 • Northern India & Nepal: 36 days, February 24 cSt October 6 • Sri Lanka: 18 days, February 10 & November 24 • Kenya: 22 days, January 28, April 1 5, July 29 & October 28.
OCEANIA AND AUSTRALASIA
Australia & New Zealand: 30 davs, February 4, July 22 & September 23 • Nevv Zealand's Milford Track L Tahiti: 23 days, February 24 & November 17.
Exploratory cxpedilions and special lours are announced from time to time in our nru'sletter Nature Tour Notes, sent free ,^lS^ " - to all on our mailing list. Copies •^~^' of the most recent issue available •■_ upon request.
Questers Tours
AND TRAVEL, INC.
Dept. nh-I78, 257 Park Avenue South New York, N. Y. 10010 • (212) 673-3120
A native Texan who has just moved to Canada, William Cade,
shown here with his daughter Tamez, is assistant professor of biological science at Brocic University in Saint Catharines, Ontario. In 1972, while doing graduate work at the University of Texas at Austin, Cade became curious about crickets and other insects that communicate with each other acoustically. "I began graduate school during a pe- riod of virtual revolution in evolu- tionary theory," he says, "and my scientific interests changed from cell biology to ecology and the evolution of animal behavior." He subsequently wrote his doctoral thesis on the sexual behavior of the field cricket, readily observed in Texas. Since crickets and their rela- tives are agricultural pests in the United States and other parts of the world. Cade hopes that his basic re- search may also prove utilitarian.
In the belief that anthropology students become better anthropolo- gists if they understand their own culture, Conrad P. Kottak, who teaches at the University of Michi- gan in Ann Arbor, has spent consid- erable time at a nearby McDonald's restaurant. The data he has gath- ered there contribute to the material he uses in his undergraduate an- thropology courses. Kottak plans to examine the significance of such manifestations as Walt Disney's creations, the movie Star Wars. and the effects of advertising and politics on American pop culture. In pursuit of more information on these subjects, he frequently watches television, reads maga- zines, and accompanies his children to diiferent fast-food restaurants.
A naturalized United States citi- zen, Richard Goody has been at Harvard University ever since he came to this country from his na- tive England twenty years ago. He has been interested in planetary astronomy for an even longer pe- riod. Currently a professor of planetary physics. Goody got his B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees from Cambridge University. His present research centers on the meteorology of Venus, Martian dust storms, and the plasmasphere of Jupiter. His future projects in- clude studying the satellites of the outer planets. Goody is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and the author of several books.
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The Early Greeks. By R. J. Hop- per. The emergence of Greek civilization in all its archaelogical and cultural splendor.
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Liberal bonus plan. You can qualify for added savings through bonus books, which you can pick from our full list of 150-200 fine works.
Exceptional quality. In its 31 years, the Club has distributed over 1,000 outstanding books, including 64 award-winners. Our books are always the equal of publishers' editions, never economy reprints.
Fine service. Every four weeks you receive our Review and a dated reply card. If you want the Editors' Choice, do nothing: the book will come automatically. To order another book or no book, return card by specified date. You will have at least 10 days to decide-but if you get an unwanted book because of late mail, we'll pay return postage.
The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. By
O.F. Maenchen-Helfen.
$20.00/$ll.S0
P78A
More fine books to choose from:
163. Medieval History: The Life and Death of a Civilization.
By Norman F. Cantor. $11.95/$8.9S
464. The Twelve Caesars. By Michael Grant. From Julius in 49 B.C. through Domitian in 96 A.D. $12.50/$8.75
647. The Norman Fate 1100-1154. By David C.Douglas. $22.50/$11.50
665. The Hittites: And Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor. By J. G. Macqueen. $ 18.00/$11.00 658. Stonewall In the Valley: T. J. ^Stonewall' Jackson's Shenandoah Valley Campaign, Spring \%62.By Robert G. Tanner. $10.00/$7.95 599. The Making of Hitler: The Birth of "Szzxsm. By Eugene Davidson. $1750/$11.95 377. Hugo Black And The Judicial Revolution. By Gerald T. Dunne. The paradoxical career of a Klu Kiux Klan-supported senator who became an influential Supreme Court justice. $12.50/$8.S0
569. A Genius For War: The German Army and General Staff 1807-1947. By Col. T. N. Dupuy. $14.95/$9.90
590. T. E. Lawrence: A New Biography. By Desmond Stewart. $15.00/$9.95
549. The Japanese. By Edwin O. Reischauer. The former U.S. Ambassador describes the background, culture and politics of contemporary Japan. $15.00/$9.9S
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Please enroll me as a trial member and send me the introductory books whose numbers I enter below. Bill those on the left at 99*f for all three and the fourth at the low member's price, plus modest shipping charges.
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THE HORCHOM^ (DILEaiON
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Last summer, Mr. Hanns Ebensten made one of the most exciting and enjoyable survey expeditions of fiis life, in Nortfiern Canada.
In collaboration witti fi^anitoba Gov- ernment Travel, we now proudly offer small groups of travelers tfie first op- portunity to visit this wonderfully rewarding region:
AUGUST 24 TO 30, 1978
AUGUST 27 TO SEPTEMBER 2, 1978
We travel north from Winnipeg by plane to our lodge base, and make forays by helicopter and boat to see polar bears, caribou and moose; we hike over the immense tundra which is at this time covered with a pro- fusion of wildllowers and berries: the area is particularly rich in shore birds and water fowl: the estuaries of the Bay abound with whales; and there is a notable lack of human activity.
Detailed brochures are available from:
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A Matter of Taste
by Raymond Sokolov
Grounds for Delight
When carefully brewed, a cup of coffee can overwhelm the senses
As I grow older, I incline more readily to the view that the whims of the aged should be treated with at least grudging respect. For instance, I side with the senescent but nor- mally sophisticated New York pub- lisher whose quirk it was to take iced coffee with lunch — every lunch. After a long career, the pub- lisher moved his office to a building directly across the street from an expensive French restaurant whose proprietor, a martinet in almost every respect, surpassed even his usual hauteur on the day he refused to serve the elderly bookman coffee with his timbale de homard. That this misplaced gastronomic strict- ness cost the restaurateur thou- sands of dollars in expense account editorial lunches (and that similar acts of rudeness soon alienated many more clients and forced the restaurant to close) is a just and fit- ting reminder that fine dining should not be encumbered with rigid rules. On the other hand, it is fair to say that the literary graybeard had vio- lated good taste, but he did so in a thoroughly American way.
Few commentators on our do- mestic habits — even Tocqueville neglected this point — have re- marked that, unlike the people of
other cultures, Americans swill cof- fee with their meals. This is an abomination almost as noxious as the Scandinavian predilection for combining food with glasses of hard liquor, for coffee is one of the very few things we can consume that has a truly bitter taste. By itself, a care- fully brewed, aromatic cup of cof- fee is a wonderful thing. It does not, however, go with either meat or fish. Coffee does complement sweet foods, and I think that the insistence of some European res- taurants that coffee must always be a separate course served with cere- mony after dessert is needlessly fastidious. Yet this severity points in the right direction. Good coffee is a rare and hard-won treat, diffi- cult to prepare and worth attending to without the distraction of other tastes and smells. Really good cof- fee can be as overwhelming to the senses as a fresh truffle. I recall tasting a cup, absentmindedly, after a splendid dinner in a Brazilian ex- patriate's house and snapping to surprised attention. I complimented my host, who explained, somewhat embarrassed at my slowness, that he was an importer; coffee was his business.
You don't have to be a Brazilian coffee broker to have good coffee at home, but it helps. Coffee is not a simple drink. It is much more dif- ficult to be sure of finding good coffee than it is to know that you
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Includes this Deluxe Album and 48-page Gallery Lecture Guide— at no extra cost
/^AZE in astonishment as Renoir's ^-^ lovely "Seated Bather" (shown above) appears on your wall aglow with all the vibrant reds, blues and greens of the Impressionist palette. Or, thrill to Rembrandt's famed "Aristotle Con- templating the Bust of Homer"— one of the world's costliest works of art. Or, marvel as you view Titian's allegorical masterpiece "Sacred and Profane Love" just as it appears in Rome's Borghese Gallery.
Until today, unless you had the means to travel among the world's great mu- seums and private collections, you sim- ply could not know these paintings so intimately. Now, as a member of the McGraw-Hill Color Slide Program of Art Enjoyment, they are but a few of the magnificent art works you will en- joy and more richly understand as you view them in dramatic full-size and glowing original colors!
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If you mail the attached card, you will receive a unique Album containing 24 color slides of priceless works by Renoir, Monet, Degas and other important Im- pressionist painters. These exquisite slides are produced to exacting specifi- cations in Florence on 35mm. Kodak film. They come in individual 2" x 2" mounts and can be used in any home slide projector. (If you do not own a projector, see special offer below.)
The color slides, however, are only one part of this elaborate Album. Bound into the center is an illus- trated 48-page book by Albert
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The least you might expect to pay for 24 color slides of comparable quality— if the subjects were available from mu- seums and private collections— is $18- $24. Yet, as a subscriber to this new Pro- gram, you pay only J7.95 for each com- plete Album— including slides and illus- trated guide book. You may take as few or as many as you like, and may stop whenever you wish.
Your Introductory Album only $1 No obligation to continue
Send no money now. We will ship your introductory Color Slide Album of Im- pressionist Paintings and enroll you as a trial subscriber. If you are thrilled with the demonstration, send only $1, plus a few cents for tax and shipping. Thereafter, you will be offered a new Album approximately every six weeks at the subscribers' low price of only $7.95. If not deliglued, however, you may return the Introductory Album within 15 days, and owe nothing. Mail the attached card today.
Here's what you get for only $1
Luncheon en the Groji— Edouard Manet
Women in the Garden— Claude Monet
The Green Parasol— Benhe Morisot
Nude in the Sun— Auguste Renoir
The Seated Bather— Augusle Renoir
The Pedicure— }Ldg2T Degas
The Saint-Lazare Railroad Station— Claude Monet
The House of Pere Lacroix—Pau] Cezanne
The Saint-Martin CanaZ-Alfred Sisley
At the Races— Edg^x Degas
Tlie Red iioo/i— Camille Pissarro
The Loge— Mary Cassatt
. . . plus 12 other Impressionist classics!
The Color Slide Program of Art Enjoyment
If you do not have a projector: here's an unusual oppor- tunity. We can offer you the sensational Kodak Carousel BC 604 Projector suppUed with a 500-watt lamp, and 4-inch f/2.8 Ektanar lens. This top-rated projector shows all regu- lar 2" X 2" 35mm. slides up to 1/16-inch thick. It has depend- able gravity feed and you have instant access to any one of its 140-slide capacity at any time. List price SI 14.50— subscribers' price only §85.95, plus tax. Re- mittance must accompany trial subscription form. If you arc not completely dcliglited with the projector, you may return it in 15 days for a full refund.
If Reply Card has been removed, write Color Slide Program of Art Enjoyment, Depl. AY.139, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020
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have laid your hands on a respect- able bottle of wine, because coffee is not labeled or controlled with anything like the precision of wine. Still, with the recent rise in coffee prices, a good cup of Mocha-Java may soon cost as much as a glass of Chambertin.
Whatever other thoughts the cur- rent coffee shortage may provoke, when we pay more than $4 a pound for supermarket, canned, run-of- the-mill stufi", it is time to take a serious look at this curiously stimu- lating decoction of the fruit of C of - feci arabica, which we have been downing with such nonchalance for so long.
A good cup of coflFee is the end of a complex chain of transmission that begins in such exotic tropical highlands as the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, the Colombian Cordillera, or the Harar district of Ethiopia, where coffee shrubs first grew in the wild. Coffee's cherry like fruit was eaten for protein and fermented for wine before its inner bean was boiled to make the beverage we love. By about 1600 it was well known in western Europe. Coffee- houses started up everywhere and became centers of urban social life. Louis XIV backed an ultimately successful French horticultural ef- fort that culminated in coffee plan- tations in Martinique (and subse- quently, all over the tropics of the New World). Coffee (whose En- glish name is a cognate of an Arabic word that probably came into the language via a Turkish variant) is now a worldwide or, at least, a third-world-wide crop. Green beans (what is left after the fleshy outside of the berry is removed) come to us from around the globe. And it is the devil's own job for the layman to choose among them.
One certainty is that canned com- mercial coffee is the lowest echelon in the retail coffee marketplace. Brand-name coffees are blends, and they increasingly contain admix- tures of an inferior, insipid strain of coffee, C. robiista. Stepping up the ladder to whole roasted beans, we enter a chaotic but fascinating arena of warring claims. Quality beans — even if correctly labeled — come in many grades, from many places within the general growing area identified by a label. Just as hill- sides in Burgundy differ, so do hill- sides in coffee-growing regions of Costa Rica. At today's prices, one
wants to be sure of what one is purchasing, but the fact is that the specialty coffee merchants have us by the short hairs. We can never be sure that the Medellin beans in the picturesque sack — side-by-side with many equally picturesque sacks — are as good as we would like. Some aficionados will taste whole beans or scrutinize them to see that they are not mottled, suit- ably uniform, and lustrous with oil.
Roasting, especially the pro- tracted dark roasting favored by Italians and others in the know, brings oil to the surface of the bean. In my neighborhood, there used to be a wise old Italian coffee man whose store was dusty and aro- matic; he roasted his own beans every day on the premises. This was a rare opportunity and it ended when he closed up shop a few years ago. Now I see how impor- tant it is to get fresh-roasted beans. After a few days the oil begins to go rancid. To combat this, connois- seurs refrigerate whole beans in air- tight glass containers. They buy in small quantities, enough for a week or two, and grind what they need as they need it. Whole beans retain their flavor much longer than ground coffee. But, then, purists fight over which is the best kind of grinder and how fine to grind. Edu- cated opinion seems to align itself with burr-type electric grinders ad- justed to produce the finest grind short of powder (real pulverization vaporizes the oil and defeats the purpose of the exercise). All these gyrations lead ultimately to the par- lous act of brewing. Here, a few basic principles determine every- thing, and they are all meant to pro- duce a pure, strong coffee aroma.
For the perfect cup of coffee, you must combine the best water avail- able, at a temperature just below boiling, with the best beans you can get. This must, logically, occur in some sort of vessel. Glass and ce- ramic finishes are ideal. Metal of almost any sort picks up an off-taste and/or adds its own to the coffee.
Some people simply put coffee in an enamel saucepan, pour very hot water over it, wait until flavor de- velops, and get the floating grounds to settle to the bottom by adding eggshell or a small amount of cold water. Such "prospector's coffee" is as good as can be, but it is a mess. Indeed, figuring out what to do with the grounds is the main mechanical
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Plate shown smaller than actual size \0%" diameter
Tall Ships - A Salute To America
limited edition collector plate honoring the historic spectacle of the Tall Ships
An original plate design with 6" ceramic tile inset
in a unique metallic alloy with the heirloom look of
fine pewter.
Hand-decorated in full color from an original
privately-commissioned painting by noted nautical
artist, Robert Devereaux.
Each plate made exclusively for the Danbury Mint
— not available in art galleries or stores.
Issued in a strictly limited edition — available by
advance reservation only.
Priced at only $19.50
This edition closes forever on January 3 1 , 1978.
On July 4, 1976, millions of Americans watched one of the grandest spectacles of this country's 200th birthday celebration ... the passing of the Tall Ships. Now, for the first time, the Danbury Mint is proud to announce a very special plate issue . . . The Tall Ships. This unique
metallic plate is a fitting tribute to America and the\ treasured maidens of the sea which sailed to New York , harbor from all over the world to salute her!
RESERVATION APPLICATION
The Danbury Mint Must be postmarked
47 Richards Avenue by Jan. 31, 1978
Norwalk. Ct. 06856
Please accept my reservation for the Tall Ships Plate — A Salute to America. I understand that orders must be post- marked by Jan. 31, 1978.
Payment is enclosed for Tall Ships plate(s) at
quanUty
$ 19.50 each plus $ 1 .50 postage and handhng. Total $2 1 .00.
Name
Address
City.
State .
Zip .
Make check or money order payable to: Danbury Mini.
Allinv 6 lo8 weeks after edition closing for shipment.
* Conneclicul residents please remit $22.47 to include state sales lax.
NH
-L.L.Beair\
Outdoor Sporting Specialties
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problem of coflFee making. It has led to scores of solutions too familiar to mention. The filter-drip method is the experts' favorite. You just fold up the filter paper around the grounds and throw them out. The urn is glass or pottery. And there you are. Except for one thing. Cof- fee gets cold and does not reheat well. A thermos is the best solution. It preserves the flavor, although aroma is irrevocably lost after those first few minutes. Cold coffee can be used for iced coffee or even drunk at room temperature. Any Italian cafe will serve you caffe freddo on request and without treating you like a lunatic. In Bologna, even cold coffee can taste good.
Coffee also has a limited range of uses in cooking. Primarily, it shows up as a flavoring element in pastry cream, in ice cream, and in mousses. Since the cook in these cases wants intense flavor, but as little liquid as possible, freeze-dried coffee is a good source. It dissolves easily in a bit of cold liquid. Aroma is not an issue in a coffee eclair; so the usual deficiencies of freeze- dried coffee don't matter. And the flavor of freeze-dried crystals is generally superior to that of instant powder.
Coffee is, of course, not only a flavorful drink, it is also a drug or rather it contains one, caffeine. Caf-
feine may be harmful to some peo- ple's health, and it may keep some people up or make them jittery. Such people can always abstain or choose flat, decaffeinated coffee. Or they can opt for abstemious self-in- dulgence: they can decide to drink small amounts of very good coffee. Putting the standard two table- spoons of ground coffee into six ounces of water per cup twice a day, they will risk little and improve the enjoyment of life through astute ex- ploitation of a useful plant. It is also the case that one pound of coffee yields more than fifty such cups. And should coffee climb to $10 a pound, think of it as twenty cents per marvelous cup.
So drink less and enjoy it more. T.S. Eliot had it all wrong. His character Prufrock should have re- joiced, not whimpered, when he said: "I have measured out my life with coffee spoons."
Raymond Sokolov is a free-lance writer whose special field of in- terest is the history and preparation of food.
Errata: We regret mixing our fruits and inadvertently substituting a photograph of a fig tree for a date palm in October's column. Also, the figures for dates produced in California and imported dates should have read "thousands of tons," not millions.
Frozen Coffee Mousse
4 egg yolks % cup superfine sugar 2 tablespoons freeze-dried coffee 4 egg whites 1 tablespoon sugar
1. Beat the egg yolks, superfine sugar, and coffee together until thoroughly mixed. If the coffee granules do not completely dis- solve into the mixture, proceed anyway to the next step.
2. Heat the mixture from step 1 in a heavy-bottomed saucepan over low heat. Beat constantly for 3 or 4 minutes with a whisk. When the mixture thickens, set the saucepan in a shallow pan containing cold water and con- tinue beating. This will give you a chance to mix in any remaining coffee granules and will also pre- vent the mixture from overcook- ing. Be alert during the cooking stage; as soon as the mixture be-
gins to stick to the pan or to cur- dle, remove to the pan of cold water.
3. Beat the egg whites until they form soft peaks. Add the sugar and beat some more, until stiff peaks form.
4. Stir a quarter of the egg whites into the yolk-coffee mixture to lighten it. Then fold in the rest of the egg whites.
5. Transfer the mousse to a serving dish. Place in the freezer. After an hour or so, fold the mousse into itself; some separation will probably have taken place. Be careful to preserve as much air and lightness as possible. Test the mixture again after another hour and fold again if necessary. Continue in this manner until folding is no longer necessary. Before sitting down to dinner, remove from the freezer to soften the mousse slightly.
Yield: Eight servings
14
J-
((
The most complete and most scholarly dictionary of the English language'*
—The Christian Science Monitor
As an introduction to membership in the
BOOK-OFTHEMONTH CLUB
yours for only
Publisher's list price $95
]
THE SUGGESTED TRIAL: You simply agree
to buy four Club choices within a year at substantial
savings on most books you choose
THE Oxford English Dictionary is generally re- garded as the final arbiter of the English language. Until recently, it has been available only as a thirteen- volume set, currently priced at $395. Now, through the combination of an ingenious method of micrographic reproduction and a fine Bausch & Lomb optical lens, every single one of its 16,569 pages, fifty million words and close to two million illustrative quotations ap- pears, in easily readable form, in The Compact Edition.
Book critic Ctiristopher Lehmann-Haupt of The New York Times has said of this edition: "It is
something of a miracle The Compact Edition is
easier to work with than the original with its 13 separate volumes." Even more extraordinary, as a trial member of the Book-of-the-Month Club you may obtain the two-vol- ume set for only $17.50. And as long as you remain a member, you will receive the Book-of-the-Month Club News," a literary magazine announcing the coming Selection and describing other important books, known as Alternates, most of which are available at substantial discounts— up to 40% on more expensive volumes. All of these books are identical to tlie pub- lishers' editions in content, format, size and quality.
If you continue after your trial membership, you will earn at least one Book-Dividend " Credit for every Selection or Alternate you buy. These Credits entitle you to obtain a wide variety of books, called Book- Dividends, at astonishing savings— at least 70% of publishers ' list prices.
FACTS ABOUT MEMBERSHIP
• You will receive the Book-of-the-Monih Club News, a literary magazine published by the Club fifteen limes a year. The News describes the coming Selection and scores of Alternates, and will be sent to you approximately every three and a half weeks.
• If you wish to purchase the Selection, do nothing and it will be shipped to you auto- matically.
• If you do not want the Selection— or you would like one of the Alternates or no book at all — simply indicate your decision on the reply form always enclosed with the News and mail it so we receive it by the date specified.
• If, because of late mail delivery of the News, you should receive a Selection without having had 10 days to decide whether you want it. that Selection may be returned at Club expense.
• Boxed set of two volumes, 9%"x 13'/2"each
• All 16,569 pages of I3-vol- ume original included in the 4134 pages of The Compact Edition through a photo-re- duction process which per- mits printing of four pages of original on one page of new edition
• Paper is 30-pound Special Dictionary White
• Binding is library buckram — reinforced and stamped in gold
• Bausch & Lomb magnify- ing glass included in special drawer of slipcase. 2" x 3%" lens scientificaUy designed to make reduced print easily readable
BOOK-OF-THE-MONTH CLUB, INC. 8-A113-1
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Please enroll me :is a member of the Book- mrs. >
of-the-Monlh Club and send me The Compact miss * (Please print plainly) Edition of llie O.xford Enf-ii^li Dictionary, bill- ing me $17.50 (in Canada $19). I agree to buy Address 53
at least four Selections or Allernates during the first year I am a member, paying in most
cases special members' prices. My membership City
is cancelable any lime after I buy these four
books. A shipping charge is added to all .,.
.shipments. '""" '^'''
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tBosed on 1977 EPA Gas Mileage Guide. 1978 data not available at press rime. *1977 Mercedes Benz accelerolion (0-50 mph) from Car and Driver, March 1977. Comparison based on sid. equipment cars. © Volkswagen o! America.
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THE
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Imagine a Voil<swagen limou- sine. Got it? Good!
You tiave now grasped the concept of the VW Dasher.
The Dasher Sedans are our I
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The Mercedes, the Rolls and the Dasher do have their similarities.
All 3 have dignified interiors, v^ith handsome, thoughtful ap- pointments like reclining bucket seats, remote control outside mir- rors and quartz electric clocks.
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Melville's Moby Dick, Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Plato's Republic, Thackeray's Vanity Fair, Fielding's Toyn ]ones, Hawthorne's icarlet Letter, Dostoevesky's Crime and Punishment, Homer's Iliad, Bronte's Wuthering Heights, Dante's Divine Comedy, Swift's Gulliver's Travels. Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn and Milton's Paradise Lost.
Books like these are the greatest books of all time. ..the books of lasting value that ;ach family wants on its bookshelves.
As Beautiful as They Kre Meaningful
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I
The Great Energy Standofif
by Luther P. Gerlach
Shortages, Arabs, and technology may hurt energy plans, but they can't compare with a few determined Minnesota farmers
On a small hill near Scott Jenks's dairy farm outside the town of Lowry in west-central Minnesota, a large hand-lettered poster pro- claims: "God made this land for growing food, not for power lines."
For five frigid November days more than a year ago, farmers and their townsfolk neighbors gathered on that hill to block surveying for construction of a high- voltage trans- mission line. A few weeks later I sat with some of the participants in the community room of the Lowry Lutheran Church, as they explained what had happened on the hill.
"We blocked them with our bodies and our equipment," ex- plained Scott Jenks, 59. "We stood in front of the surveyors' transits and their aiming stakes. And we ran chain saws so that they could not talk to each other by walkie-talkie. But there was no violence. We wouldn't have any of that."
"When the sheriff told one of us to move on, we did," observed Gurvin Femrite, 39, who came up to help Scott soon after trouble started. "But then someone else just stepped in to take our spot."
"When I saw Scott and our neighbor Tony Bartos parking the silage wagon in front of the sur- veyors, I got worried," added Mrs. Jenks. "We knew what had hap- pened over in Meeker and Stearns counties, you see. So I got on the phone and started calling the others in our group. And then they called others."
Art Isackson nodded. "And we came. I guess at one point we had 200 out there. Not just farmers, but also people from the towns — busi- nessmen and others. And they came from all over. From some of the other groups in the other coun-
22
ties where the line will go. If this would have gone on another day or if we have to do it again, we would get maybe 500 out."
"Reporters and city people just don't seem to understand this," ex- plained Carolyn Koudela, 41, a farm wife and president of one of the resister groups. Save Our Coun- tryside, or SOC. "We are very in- dividualistic. Our land is our land. Each of us will farm it in his own way, and no one can tell him he must change. But when one of us is in trouble, everyone will rush to help. Like when the tornado struck two or three years ago and hit a barn north of Lowry. Within two hours the neighbors had the live- stock rounded up and all the wreck- age cleared. So when our land is threatened by the power line, we all help. It's our way."
"I don't know how we would have fed 500," sighed Esther Hed- lin, 60. "We had trouble as it was — but we managed. First we made coffee, and it went on from there. The more that was needed, the more we provided."
"One report in the paper said that you also fed the surveyors," I observed.
"Of course," smiled Mrs. Jenks, "we really have nothing against them as persons. It's what they represent." (The surveyors were employed by two collaborating rural electric cooperatives.)
"Someone did let the air out of Kingsley's car tires — he's the co- ops' field representative — but Scott had his son pump them right back up.
"I guess it was Kingsley who said on TV that we should all be in the slammer for what we were do- ing."
When I asked if that was why they called the place where they resisted the surveyors Slammer Hill, they nodded alfirmatively. "That's what we called it at first. It was a risk we were willing to take, being arrested. There is just no way
we are going to let the line cross our land. But since it's our rights and our land we are fighting to protect, we gave the hill a new name."
"What's that?"
"Constitution Hill. The name's still up there on the canvas we stretched across the top of the township road. You have to see it."
Later I did visit the "Hill"; I spoke to farmers and businessmen, and heard them express over and over why they believe the trans- mission line is a threat to rural life, to their health and welfare, to their ability to farm effectively and pro- duce food to feed the world, and to their sense of integrity and justice.
Scott Jenks and his wife ex- plained how they built up the farm they had bought in 1952 with the last of their savings. "We sold everything we had and moved up here with nothing but our car and some furniture. We had real rough sledding at first. Food prices were way down at the time. We were feeding hogs, but got nothing for them. But we made it. I can remem- ber wearing the same shoes, patch- ing the soles, year after year. But we raised six fine children and built a real fine operation.
"The two girls are nurses, and two of the boys are farming rental land. When they finished school, we sold the dairy herd; now we concentrate on small grains — wheat, soybeans, oats. And I also have a backhoe and do some earth moving on contract. We did a lot of work ourselves on our new house. We've thought about selling rather than live under the line. But when prospective buyers hear that this is where the big line is going to come, they lose interest."
"I've heard that the governor and some legislators are talking about the state and the co-ops buy- ing out a person who just cannot bear to live with the line," I com- mented. "Would this satisfy you, particularly if they paid what you asked?"
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"No, it's like being forced off your land. Maybe at one time if they would have offered us enough, we would have taken it. But now we are not going to give in."
"It's a principle we're fighting for — and a way of life," Carolyn Koudela explained. "Family farm- ing is a good way of life. We are not all millionaire farmers. Many owe a lot for their land, for equip- ment, parts, and fertilizer. But they all take pride in what they do. And not just the elders. My husband's people have been farming here for three generations, and I am sure that there will be a fourth genera- tion for the simple reason that we have two sons, we have four daugh- ters. Some will be working else- where, but some will farm. They just love the land, this way of life. There's a freedom in it."
"We have 520 tillable acres of good soil, black and heavy," Gurvin Femrite declared, as we drove around his fields. "We raise wheat, barley, com, and beans and feed up some beef cattle. Even though they called it a drought last year, we grew enough beans to win a five-state contest. We planted double rows. The prize was a trip to Las Vegas. We would never have gone otherwise; it's just too expensive. The power line is sup- posed to go right where we grew the beans. They take a 160-foot- wide easement and put the line in the center of it."
We stopped on a corner of his land and looked around. Heavy winds had drifted the shallow snow. The land was broad and flat: Lowry, the highway, and Jenks's hill rose several miles to the east. It looked beautiful, even under the cold gray sky. As we drove on, Femrite interrupted my musing: "That's the Hedlin's place over there, Esther and her brother."
"Was it Esther who said they are worried that the line goes over their drainage ditch and they won't be able to get a dragline in to keep it open?"
"Sure, it's something to worry about. You need good drainage here. And it's the same if it goes over the Lowry sewage lagoon; they won't be able to dredge it."
We turned into Femrite's place and he pointed out the metal barn he had just erected to store ma- chines and green crops. "Accord- ing to the new route, the line would
26
be about 500 feet from it. And then it would probably go over where Myra has her vegetable garden. So we wonder, can we really keep on living here? Is it fair to our chil- dren? They are the fourth genera- tion of Femrites. But with the line, they will get the land in worse shape than when we got it. Mostly, we worry what may happen to them if they grow up under the line."
Joining our wives for coffee in the Femrite's comfortable kitchen, we talked about the resisters' con- cern that since "the line" is larger than anything else in the upper Mid- west— two direct current lines, each able to carry 400 kilovolts — they consider it a major, untested risk to health and safety. We dis- cussed how other power line resis- ters (especially Jim Nelson, 32, in Grant County — a farmer with a master's degree in physics), have put together reports that warn of the way such lines could emit ozone or produce electromagnetic fields and induced currents.
"The cooperatives tell us there is no risk, but when we read the reports of the Russian experiments and the testimony of those New York doctors. ..."
"Marino and Becker? But their research was on 765-kilovolt lines, alternating current."
"Still, it makes you think. As Verlyn Marth says, 400 kilovolts in each line means 800 kilovolts. The point is, we just don't know. Now the state is going to have the uni- versity monitor the line for the effects of ozone."
"So we are the guinea pigs." Myra shook her head, poured more coffee. "We and our three sons. Are we just supposed to wait and hope the co-ops are right? Is it fair to our children?"
Together with her neighbor Nina Rutledge, Myra leads a Cub Scout den. They talk about how they stood together on Constitution Hill all morning resisting the surveyors, singing "God Bless America" and "We Shall Overcome" to drown out the sheriff's attempts to read an order to disperse. Then they broke off, went home, picked up the Cub Scouts, and drove them to the TV station in Alexandria, some thirty miles away, so that the Cubs could see how a TV show was produced. At the station, one of the reporters stared at them, did a double take, and asked if he had not seen them
before — on the Hill that morning.
"He seemed surprised," noted Nina. "We were in a different con- text. Maybe at first he couldn't be- lieve that the same people who were on the Hill would also be den mothers."
Nina and her husband, Dennis, are newcomers to the area. Dennis, an Annapolis graduate, was a Navy pilot, and still flies in the Reserve. But he grew up on a farm in Ben- son, Minnesota, and always wanted to get back to farming. Despite the risk in leaving the security of the service, he and Nina took the plunge in 1974 when they found the place they wanted, 210 acres on the highway outside Lowry. They were hit by drought, low prices for their corn and soybeans — and now the threat that the line would cross three-quarters of a mile of their land. "But we'll make it. We're determined."
Rutledges, Jenks, Koudelas, Femrites — newcomers or centen- nial farmers — they are all deter- mined to maintain their way of life against threats from the outside, to challenge and resist the power line. They are but a tiny sample of the resisters. Some 3,000 people have signed up as members of one or more of at least eleven resister groups — No Power Lines, in one part of Grant County; Save Our Countryside, in Pope; Keep Towers Out, in Steams — to name but a few. Hundreds came out to block the surveyors at Lowry. Scores came out to block the surveyors in Stearns and Meeker counties.
Since spring of 1974, when the electrical cooperatives first sought easements for the line, hundreds have taken time out from planting and harvesting or braved the snows of winter to challenge the line and face the cooperatives in dozens of local meetings and regional and state hearings. They have contrib- uted uncounted hours and many thousands of dollars to fight the line not only in the hearings but also before the courts and legislature. Some of them have traveled to other parts of the country to leam about power-line fights or related energy matters.
It has cost them in stress and anxiety: "Well, it's really been something I never thought to ex- perience. It's all you think about day or night. I dreamed last night that the thing was finally settled.
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I just can't believe this is happening to us. It's like a horrible dream. We have no control over what hap- pens; they just get their own way with the line."
Yet many also say that through all of this, people and communities have been empowered, enriched; they have never been as together or as alert as they are now. They tell how this struggle has changed them, has opened their eyes to the need to be involved and not just to trust that things will work out.
Theirs was the first power line to be routed according to the 1973 Minnesota power plant and power- line siting legislation. This law au- thorized the Environmental Quality Council (EQC, a board comprised of the heads of seven state agen- cies, a governor's representative, and four citizen advisors) to deter- mine routes based not only upon recommendations from utilities but also from citizens. As good as this first seemed, the resisters quickly found flaws in it.
"The confrontations have been important," according to Harold Hagen, who has been challenging the line since January 1975. "But now we need to change the legisla- tive procedures, which forced rout- ing the lines over productive crop- land."
Hagen, 50, began farming in 1946 at Starbuck, with 160 acres he has since built up into a 1,200-acre enterprise. He grows grain and com and keeps up to 12,000 chicken and turkey breeders. He spends as much as $400 a month on electricity to ventilate and light the breeders. I heard him speak eflFectively at hearings, meetings, and press inter- views. Now, he and I stood in the middle of the rolling, black-hued acres he had been harrowing and fertilizing with nitrogen sprayed from an ammonia tank hitched to his tractor.
Hagen, who served on the citizen advisory task force to help site the line, described his frustrations: "We were told that the line could not go over state parks and wild- life areas or down highway or rail- road rights-of-way. That forced the line onto farmland. Some say it's because the Department of Natural Resources (DNR), the Department of Transportation, and the environ- mentalists protected their turf. Some say it's because it's easier to build the line over flat farmland."
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J^ magnificent book for all those ^ A. interested in birds, in nature, in the fight for our threatened environ- ment— and in the man who worked with the Audubon Society to make that fight America's own.
The World of Roger Tory Peterson is a biography so eventful it reads al- most like fiction. FUled with stories of famous birdwatchers from Louis Agas- siz Fuertes to Elliot Richardson, it in- troduces you to a remarkable man in all his aspects ... a boy collecting wildflowers and ducking his father's razor strop ... a teenager photograph- ing birds and ruining his first romance by making a date of a 17-mile bird walk.
Roger Tory Peterson was reported as a possible spy for standing with bin- oculars at five in the morning on Long Island's Suru-ise Highway looking for goldfinches. He explored 40 belfries in the Rhine Valley seeking storks. He lost his red cap and nearly his life pho- tographing supposedly extinct James's flamingos at 14,000 feet in Laguna Colorada in Bolivia. When he got a haircut on the Galapagos a hen scan- dens gathered each lock as it fell to line her nest, and on Femandina Is- land he was attacked as a rival by a bull fur seal.
You'll travel with him from Galapagos to Greece, from New Eng- land to New Hebrides, from the Andes to Antarctica viewing rare birds from a unique perspective.
This is a reading experience almost as intimate as a bird walk with Mr. Pe- terson as host and guide.
A beautiful experience . . . a volume of great beauty.
In shsuing the life and enthusiasms of Roger Tory Peterson, you will also en- joy the great talents of this unusual man. The book is handsomely and profusely illustrated with his own drawings and full-color paintings. In itself, it is a collector's item you will treasure and enjoy. The ideal gift for lovers of birds and beauty.
16 pages in full color
12 pages black and wrhite
Jacket art created especially by
Roger Tory Peterson
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An Authorized Biography
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29
"Where is the line going to cross your land?" I asked.
"It's not, not now. It was on the cooperatives" preferred route, but this route was shifted during the hearings."
"Yet you have been working just as hard since then to resist the new route."
"Yes, it's something that had to be done."
I asked if it wasn't also true that some people were helping resist the line even though they never were affected by it.
"Yes, quite a few, like the Koudelas and Cloweses. If we don't work together now, we might be the ones in the future."
"It's not only morally wrong if each person only looks out for him- self and tries to shift the line onto someone else's land; it's also tac- tically wrong," Jim Nelson ex- plained to me in September 1974. "The power company will pick us off one by one." As a township clerk, Jim was one of the first in Grant County to learn that the co-ops wanted to build the Une. In 1972 Nelson and his wife had joined his parents in farming 800 fertile acres near Elbow Lake.
Nelson had previously worked in the aerospace industry near Bos- ton. Now, just when the Nelsons were back to rural life, industry was going to march a giant power line right over them and their new house. As he saw it, the small rural co-ops, which had brought elec- tricity to the farms, had become giant companies little different from big utilities. He worried that once the line was in, other utilities would get permission to parallel it with other lines in a wide corridor. So he helped get a group going in his part of Grant County. No Power Lines— NPL— they called it. But he and his fellows also went out to urge others, in neighboring town- ships and counties, to form their own local groups to resist the line. Meanwhile, others were doing the same, elsewhere.
"The co-ops always look for some type of conspiracy to explain the way they have been con- fronted," Hagen once observed, "but it's not that way. It has been spontaneous. Our organization sort of builds around the action."
As resisters met, saw a common purpose, and stood together against what seemed to be the overwhelm-
ing force of the power co-ops, they found ways to collaborate across the counties. They formed loose coalitions, appointing representa- tives from each local group to serve on a coordinating board. CURE, Counties United for Rural Environ- ment, emerged.
Resisters also expanded their antiline network by telephoning and writing. The 240-acre Tripp dairy farm near El Rosa has become one of the nodes of this communication system. When the Tripps hear of someone in the state or across the country who has information the resisters need, a service they can use, or has shared common experi- ences, they will write or call.
Not unnaturally, officials in the energy industry and in government have asked the resisters in Minne- sota and elsewhere what they pro- pose to do about getting electricity if the lines are not built. Employees of the embattled Minnesota co-ops, themselves becoming militant, have worn red badges lettered in black, "If the lights go out, call CURE."
There are alternatives, resisters respond. If you won't build the lines along highways or through parks, then build smaller power plants where the power will be used, use solar or wind energy, or put the lines underground. The co- ops explain that these are simply not currently feasible alternatives. But the resisters counter by charg- ing that the power companies are locked into obsolete technology.
Showing us around his place in El Rosa, Virgil Fuchs observed that "if I used the same technology I did even five years ago, I would be finished." He scoops into a bin of golden corn kernels to show how he preserves their food value by spraying them with a new chemical instead of using a propane drier. He wants to irrigate his new fields by a large center pivot system and to spray pesticides, herbicides, and even some seeds from the air. He fears the lines and towers on his land would prevent this. His wife, Jane, stepping down from one of their big tractors — a $40,000 invest- ment— admits that for the family farmer to survive, "it's either grow bigger or get out." They need energy to grow, but if it comes through in a way that blocks their ability to use new methods of farm- ing, they feel that "it just doesn't make sense."
In March 1977, Will Mische came to a meeting of Keep Towers Out, or KTO, and asked members if they would like to try to send electricity without wires, using a method pro- posed in 1908 by Nikola Tesla. Virgil said sure, and volunteered his bean field as a site for the ex- periment.
Mische, 40, lives outside Saint Cloud, in Stearns County, has a masters degree in sociology, and works for the Minnesota State Em- ployment Service. He had been active in the peace movement in the sixties and early seventies, and re- mains committed to social action. He became increasingly worried that resistance to the line was driv- ing people to violence they did not want.
When, in February 1977, he read a newspaper article about Canadian and Russian experiments in wire- less transmission of electricity us- ing Tesla's ideas, he and his wife volunteered their time and savings to the project. He sees it as a first step to "the kind of alternative that can meet the farmers' concerns, yet provide abundant energy to help all people." He also enlisted the aid of several people of like spirit in the food cooperative movement in the Twin Cities.
Will, Virgil, and Virgil's two old- est sons worked spring and summer to build the Tesla receiver in Virgil's bean field. Their aim is to receive power broadcast from other experimenters in Timmons, On- tario, who are building a Tesla transmitter. Officials in the energy industry and Minnesota govern- ment are surprised when they hear that Virgil has allowed 7,000 feet of cable to be buried in his bean field as a ground and has erected a 60-foot tower as an antenna. They don't think it will work. "It is only one of the many things we are do- ing," say the resisters. "We won't ever give up, we are determined."
Often I am asked to lecture to various audiences about what it is that the farmers really want; what is really behind it all. I usually show how the resistance takes the shape of a social movement, like the black power movement, the environ- mental movement, women's libera- tion. Using models we developed studying and analyzing these other movements, I explain that the power line resistance is organized much like these other movements.
30
I'mluck^
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31
It is segmentary, with many differ- ent groups; it is polycentric, with many leaders. It is integrated by networics, rather than by a formal, bureaucratic chain of command. The movement grows as its partici- pants go out and recruit others, face to face. Its participants be- come committed — radicalized — as they take risks by standing up to established orders, as they did on Constitution Hill. The resisters legitimatize their actions and drive forward under the thrust of power- ful ideas about the evils of the line and the rightness of their efforts. I show that movements like this are not simply explained away as the work of a few agitators. They be- come powerful enough to stop es- tablished orders and generate change.
Sure, my audiences agree. You have just restated our problem. But what is the answer? How can we deal with this in a rational manner?
To the energy industry, resist- ance often seems not only irra- tional but also selfish, even un- patriotic and irresponsible. If fight- ing to implement the administra- tion's energy plan and achieve inde- pendence from imported oil and natural gas is "the moral equivalent of war," then developing the coal and lignite of the northern Great Plains is one of the holy battles. The energy industry can get the capital to build and use the ma- chines to mine the sprawling de- posits of fossil fuel, convert these to electricity in power plants near the mines, and send it by high- voltage transmission lines to tie into regional and national grids and sup- ply the needs of farms, towns, in- dustries, and cities. The ±400 kilo- volt, direct-current line will carry electricity into the national grid from a 1 ,000-megawatt plant in Underwood, North Dakota. The cooperatives see it as a worthy effort, but instead of being praised it is being blocked by what they re- gard as the selfish action of a hand- ful of misguided landowners.
And government is troubled. Minnesota officials feel they have a power plant and line-siting process that protects individual rights and the environment while assuring timely and responsible energy de- velopment. Both energy developers and government officials explain that the resisters have had the bene- fit of this state process and of every
32
legal remedy. The resisters' law- suits have been heard through all the state courts. After a month of deliberation the State Supreme Court denied their final appeal on September 30, 1977.
The resisters have been heard by the state legislature, which has ac- cordingly modified legislation to protect farmland in future sitings. The governor and church officials have tried separately to negotiate settlements between resisters and co-ops through mediation. Resis- ters now get sizable payments for easements. Thus, officials and energy developers say, "What more can the resisters expect? They can't just say that the 'bottom line is no line.' They should now accept the conclusion that the line will be built over the land of some of them." But these officials and energy developers join many others in asking, "Will it take force to settle it? Will it be necessary to bring out the National Guard, after all?"
In trying to answer such ques- tions, I remember how a sheriff in Steams County explained to the press why he and his few deputies could not disperse resisters and enforce surveying and construc- tion: "To pull guns is to be willing to use them, and the line just isn't worth this."
So I have to say, "No, force is not the answer." Warning of energy shortage is not the answer. Telling resisters that they can't stand in the way of the energy industries' means of winning the great crusade to meet America's energy needs is not the answer. Telling them that they had their day in court, participated in the decision-making process, and must accept the outcome is not the answer. At least, not now, not in this case, for these resisters. It may be for others, later. But for these resisters, it is they who are "in the right." It is they who are "fighting the moral equivalent of war." And some accept that it might become a real war. So, whose cause is the right one?
Is it that of those who decide to develop coal and lignite as the country's great black hope or of those who say, "Not over my place"? What do you do when re- sistance becomes as much a cru- sade as development? Simply scat- ter the minority with a whiff of eminent domain? But what is the
minority? The farmers say they are protecting the basic freedoms and the food-producing farmland that we all need. The energy developers say they are protecting legal proc- esses and the energy-providing sys- tems we all need. Government says it is making decisions reflecting study of all the social, economic, technical, political, health, and ecological factors. And it says it is facilitating public participation so it can consider all views. Maybe what officials expect is that this participative process will achieve consensus. But the participants in this process have emerged flying the banners of their rival holy causes even higher.
Even if we could determine what is the common good and what is the majority view, we live in a society that increasingly, and almost mili- tantly, seeks to protect the rights of all minorities. If a minority does rebel instead of conform, the estab- lished order does not know what to do.
So, I have no answer to the ques- tion. How can we deal with resist- ance? Answers are being sought by all involved in such disputes. The answers may be different from any- thing we can now envisage.
And they won't just be technical and economic answers, but moral, ethical ones as well. The resisters have added feelings and sentiment to the mechanical process of trans- porting energy from fossil fuels. They are telling us that the energy we use costs much more than just money. We face the dilemma to- gether. The energy future of this country is at stake.
In the summer of 1977. top Luth- eran church officials came with a local minister to visit church mem- bers who are fighting the power lines. "They really listened to our concerns," Gurvin Femrite reports. "I think they learned something. Just at the end, one churchman said, 'Of course, war doesn't solve anything.' I answered him with a question. 'But if that were the case, wouldn't we still be under English rule?' "
"What did he say to that?"
"Nothing."
Luther P. Gerlach, an anthropolo- gist at the University of Minnesota, studies social movements, includ- ing the rise of resisters to energy schemes.
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262493-262494. Bach: Suites 1 -4 and more lute music played by John Williams on the guitar (Counts as 2 — Columbia) 1 73641 . Bach: Greatest Hits— A/r OnaG String; Sleepers Awake: many others (Columbia)" 223800-223801. Bach: 6 Brandenburg Concertos —A Newman & Friends (Counts as 2 — Columbia) - 273334. Beethoven: Symphony No. 3 (Eroica)
— Solti and the Chicago Symphony (London) 273409. Beethoven: Three Favorite Piano Sonatas (Moonlight. Pathetique, Appassionatal —Vladimir Horowitz (Columbia) 270702. Beethoven: Symphony No. 7 [Dance)
— Stokowski and the New Philharmonia (London) 154856. Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (Chorale)
— Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Ormandy and the Phila Orch (Coiumbiai^ 223016-223017. Beethoven: Greatest Hits — Fur £//se, Minuet in G: first move- ment "Moonlight" Sonata: Minuef in G: excerpt from
Moonligtit' Sonata: etc (Counts as 2 — Columbia) 269142. Beethoven: Piano Sonatas No. 1 8 and 23 i Appassionata) — Lazar Berman (Columbia)* 205120. Berlioz: Symphonie Fantastique — Boulez and London Sym. (Columbial"* 271 965. Bizet: Carmen and L'Arlesienne Suites — Stokowski. cond. (Columbia) 263293. Claude Boiling: Suite tor Flute & Jazz Piano — Jean-Pierre Rampal, flute: Boiling. piano(Columbia)n
36
223388-223389. Brahms: Piano Concertos No- 1 & 2
— Rudolf Serkin; George Szell, Cleveland Orch. [Counts as 2 — Columbia) 258673-258674. Brahms: Sonatas for Violin and Piano (complete) — Stern, violin; Zakin. piano (Counts as 2 — Columbia )^- 267963. Brahms: Piano Concerto No. 1 — Artur Rubinstein: Zubin Mehta, Israel Phil (London) 216036. Chopin: Piano Concerto No. 2; DeFalla: Nights In the Gardens Of Spain — Aliciade Larrocha, pianist (London)
246843. Chopin: Mazurkas, Etudes, and more — new
recordings by Vladimir Horowitz (Columbia) 271882. Copland: Appalachian Spring; Gershwin: American In Paris — Zubm Mehta, LA Philharmonic (London) 262352 Dvorak: Piano Concerto— Justus Frantz, piano: Bernstein and N Y Phil (Columbia) 269688. Dvorak: Symphony No. 9 (New World) and Carnival Overture — Zubm Mehta, L A Phil (London) 161414. The Glory ol Gabrieli — music for mul- tiple choirs, brass and organ E Power Biggs; Gregg Smith Singers; and others [Columbia) + 187112. Gershwin: Greatest Hits. Bernstein et al: Rhapso0v "1 Blue: An American in Pans: Three Preludes: etc (Columbia) 1 77428. Gershwin: Porgy & Bess (Symphonic Picture) and An American In Paris
— Ormandy, Philadelphia Orchestra (Columbia)+ 252155-252156. Gilbert & Sullivan: Pirates Of Penzance (complete) — D Oyle Carte Opera Co (Counts as 2 — London )t
230391. Grieg: Piano Concerto; Rachmaninoff: Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini — P Entremont, piano; Eugene Ormandy, Phila Orch (Columbia)*
257956. Haydn: Symphonies
101 (Clock) and 103 (Drum Roll) — Bernstein and the N Y Phil (Columbia) 264655. Music ol Victor Herbert-Beverly Sills. A. Kostelanetz (Angel) 236448. Scott Jopltn — Entertainer, many more E Power Biggs, pedal harpsichord [Columbia) 250720. Mendelssohn: Piano Concertos — Murray Perahia, piano; Marriner cond (Columbia) 242750. Mendelssohn and Tchaikovsky Violin Con- certos—Stern, violin; Ormandy cond (Columbia) 269555. Mozart: Piano Concertos No. 1 4 and 24 — M Perahia, English Chamber Orch (Columbia) v 260588. Mozart: Piano Sonatas 14. 16. 18 — Glenn Gould (Columbia)''" 21 3330. Offenbach: Gaite Parisienne — Bernstein, NY Phil. (Columbia)" 252551 . Orff: Carmina Burana — Michael Tilson Thomas, Cleveland Orch and Chorus (Columbia) 227009. Prokofiev: Peter and the Wolf; Tchaikovsky: Nut- cracker Suite— Bernstein. NY Phil iColumbiai"
243600. Ravel: La Valse; Mother Goose Suite —
Bernstein and New York Philharmonic (Columbia) ■ 188920. Respighi: Pines and Fountains of Rome — Eugene Ormandy, Phila- delphia Orch (Columbia)* 230409. Rimsky-Korsakov: Scheherazade — Bernstein, NY Phil (Columbia)
260596-260597. Schoenberg: Gurre-Lieder— Boulez and
the BBC Symphony Orch (Counts as 2 — Columbia) + 176354, Schubert: Symphony No. 9 in C (The Great) - Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra (Columbia) + 192690. Sibelius: Greatest Hits — Swan of Tuonela: Finlandia:etc (Columbia)-^ 250795. Sibelius: Symphony No. 2 — Tauno Hannikainen, The Sinfonia of London (Columbia Musical Trees ) 173658. Johann Strauss: Blue Danube; Tales From Vienna Woods; Emperor Waltz: etc Ormandy. Phila Orch (Columbia:-^ 26B482. Johann Strauss: Tales From Vienna Woods: Die Fledermaus Overture: others Bernstein and N Y Phil (Columbia) 202796. Richard Strauss: Also Sprach Zaralhustra — Bernstein and New York Philharmonic (Columbia) 155309. Stravinsky: Firebird and Petrushka Ballet Suites — Columbia Symphony conducted by Stravinsky (Columbiai + 224733 Stravinsky: Rite Of Spring — Bernstein, London Sym iColumbia;^ 250845, Tchaikovsky: Piano Concerto No. 1 — Watts, piano; Bernstein, N Y Phil (Columbia) 137778. Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet: Sleeping Beauty Ballet Suite — Ormandy and Philadelphia Orchestra (Columbiai-^ 220947-220948. Tchaikovsky: Greatest Hits — Capnccio Italien; 1812 Overture: etc (Counts as 2 — Columbia)' 253872. Villa-Lobos: Bachianas Brasileiras No. 2. 5, 6, 9 — Mady Mespie, soprano, Capolongo Orch de Pans (Angel)"
255620. Wagner: Organ Orgy
—opera excerpts tran- scribed for organ' Anthony Newman (Columbia) 233684. Wagner Tristan und Isolde (Prelude and Love-Death, etc ) — Boulez, N Y Phil (Columbia!"
INSTRUMENTAL AND VOCAL COLLECTIONS
265926. Age Of Gold -
orchestral showpieces by Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Borodin, etc Bernstein, NY Phil (Columbia) 174607. Bernstein's Great- est Hits, Vol. 2 — D3nse Macabre. Polovtsian Dances: etc (Columbia)-*- 176602. E. Power Biggs' Greatest Hits-Bach: Sleepers Awake'; Ives: Variations on America": many more (Columbia)+ 267922. Country Fiddle Band— Gunther Schuller conducts 100 years of authentic country dance music (Columbia)" 259168. Footlifters: A Century of American Marches — G Schuller, conductor (Columbia) 246645. Music From Wall Disney's "Fantasia" — Night on Bald Mountain: Sorcerer's Apprentice: many others ( London) 262378-262379, Jascha Heifetz in Concert — he plays Franck, Bach, etc [Counts as 2— Columbia) 268318. Heifetz-Piatigorsky Concerts — chamber music by Dvorak, Stravinsky. Gliere, others (Columbia)-*- 269571. Robert Merrill & Mormon Tabernacle Choir — Yankee Doodle Dandies! Over There: Till We Meet Again: etc (Columbia) 261891-261892. Mormon Tabernacle Choir — Rock Of Ages. 31 great hymns (Counts as 2 — Columbia)
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Just two of the great performers whose latest recordings are now offered on stereo records, cassettes, 8-track cartridges and reel tapes
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274126. Solli/ChJcago Sym- phony—Ravel Bolero: Debussy Afternoon of a Faun and La Mer (London) 271973. Stokowski Encores
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This View of Life
Nature's Odd Couples
Some unusual unions have big benefits . . . until one of the partners expires
From Nature's chain what- ever hnk you strike. Tenth, or ten thousandth, breaks the chain aUke.
A. Pope, An Essay on Man (1733)
Pope's couplet expresses a com- mon, if exaggerated, concept of connections among organisms in an ecosystem. But ecosystems are not so precariously balanced that the extirpation of one species must act like the first domino in that colorful metaphor of the cold war. Indeed, it could not be, for extinction is the common fate of all species — and they cannot all take their ecosys- tems with them. Species often have as much dependence upon each other as Longfellow's "Ships that
pass in the night." New York City might even survive without its dogs (I'm not so sure about the cock- roaches, but I'd chance it).
Shorter chains of dependence are more common. Odd couplings be- tween dissimilar organisms form a stock in trade for popularizers of natural history. An alga and a fun- gus make lichen; photosynthetic microorganisms live in the tissue of reef-building corals. Natural selec- tion is opportunistic; it fashions organisms for their current environ- ments and cannot anticipate the fu- ture. One species often evolves an unbreakable dependency upon an- other species; in an inconstant world, this fruitful tie may seal its fate.
I wrote my doctoral dissertation on the fossil land snails of Ber- muda. Along the shores, I would often encounter large hermit crabs that had incongruously stuffed themselves into smaller neritid snail shells. Why, I wondered, didn't
these crabs — their big claw pro- truding— trade their cramped quar- ters for more commodious lodg- ings? Then, one day, I saw a hermit crab with proper accommodations — a shell of the "whelk" Cittarium pica, a large snail and major food item throughout most of the West Indies. But the Cittarium shell was a fossil, washed out of an ancient sand dune to which it had been car- ried by a hermit crab 120,000 years ago. I watched carefully during the ensuing months. Most hermits had squeezed into nerites, but a few in- habited whelk shells and the shells were always fossils.
I began to put the story together, only to find that I had been scooped in 1907 by Addison E. Verrill, mas- ter taxonomist, Yale professor, protege of Louis Agassiz, and dili- gent recorder of Bermuda's natural history. Verrill searched the rec- ords of Bermudan history for ref- erences to living whelks and found that they had been abundant during
Drawn trom life by A, Verrill. 1900 38
Land Hermit Crab
by Stephen Jay Gould
the first years of human habitation. Capt. John Smith, for example, re- corded the fate of one crew member during the great famine of 1614- 15: "One amongst the rest hid him- self in the woods, and lived only on Wilkes and Land Crabs, fat and lusty, many months. "(I hope that Raymond Sokolov will act as advo- cate for the land crabs one of these months. Properly seasoned, they are delicious. For the whelks, I will let others speak — although I don't doubt their nutritional value.) Another crew member stated that they made cement for the seams of their vessels by mixing lime from burned whelk shells with turtle oil. Verrill's last living Cittarium came from the kitchen middens of British soldiers stationed on Bermuda dur- ing the war of 1812. None, he re- ported, had been seen in recent times, "nor could I learn that any had been taken within the memory of the oldest inhabitants." No ob- servations during the past seventy years have revised Verrill's conclu- clusion that Cittarium is extinct in Bermuda.
As I read Verrill's account, the plight of Cenobita diogenes (proper name of the large hermit crab) struck me with that anthro- pocentric twinge of pain often invested, perhaps improperly, in other creatures. For I realized that nature had condemned this crab to slow elimination on Bermuda. The neritid shells are too small; only juvenile and very young adult crabs fit inside them — and very badly at that. No other modern snail seems to suit the crab, and a successful adult life requires the discovery and possession (often through con- quest) of a most precious and dwin- dling commodity, a Cittarium shell. But Cittarium, to borrow the jar- gon of recent years, has become a "nonrenewable resource" on Ber- muda, and crabs are still recycling the shells of previous centuries. These shells are thick and strong, but they cannot resist the waves and rocks forever — and the supply constantly diminishes. A few "new" shells tumble down from
WE MAKE EVERY DROP of Jack Daniel's Whiskey in this old stillhouse all but buried in the Tennessee hills.
And we 'watch over it as carefully as Mr.
Jack Daniel 'would have watched it when he
'worked here more than a century ago. You
see, Mr. Jack said it 'was better to make a
jugful of great 'whiskey
than a barrelful of
just good. W^e've always
held to that old-fashioned
notion. And, we believe,
so have the folks 'who
enjoy Jack Daniel's
Tennessee Whiskey.
CHARCOAL MELLOWED
6
DROP BY DROP
Tennessee Whiskey • 90 Proof • Distilled and Bottled by Jack Daniel Distillery
Lem Motlow, Prop., Inc., Lynchburg (Pop. 361), Tennessee 37352
Placed in the National Register of Historic Places by the United States Government.
39
Tina has never had aTeddy Bear.
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the fossil dunes each year — a pre- cious legacy from ancestral crabs that carried them up the hills ages ago — but these cannot meet the de- mand. Cenobita seems destined to fulfill the pessimistic vision of many futuristic films and scenarios: depleted survivors fighting to the death for a last morsel. The scien- tist who named this large hermit chose well. Diogenes the Cynic lit his lantern and searched the streets of Athens for an honest man; none could he find. C. diogenes will perish looking for a decent shell.
This poignant story of Cenobita emerged from deep storage in my mind when I heard a strikingly similar tale last month. Crabs and snails forged an evolutionary inter- dependence in the first story. A more unlikely combination — seeds and dodos — provides the second, but this one has a happy ending.
William Buckland, a leading catastrophist among nineteenth- century geologists, summarized the history of life on a large chart, folded several times to fit in the pages of his popular work Geology and Mineralogy Considered With Reference to Natural Theology. The chart depicts victims of mass extinctions grouped by the time of their extirpation. The great animals are crowded together: ichthyo- saurs, dinosaurs, ammonites, and pterosaurs in one cluster; mam- moths, woolly rhinos, and giant cave bears in another. At the far right, representing modern animals, the dodo stands alone, the first re- corded extinction of our era. The dodo, a giant flightless pigeon (twenty-five pounds or more in weight), lived in fair abundance on the island of Mauritius. Within 200 years of its discovery in the fif- teenth century, it had been wiped out — by men who prized its tasty eggs and by the hogs that early sailors had transported to Mau- ritius. No living dodos have been seen since 1681.
In the August 26, 1977, issue of Science. Stanley A. Temple, a wildlife ecologist at the University of Wisconsin, reported the follow- ing remarkable story. He, and others before him, had noted that a large tree, Caharia major, seemed to be near the verge of extinction on Mauritius. In 1973, he could find only thirteen "old, overmature, and dying trees" in the remnant native forests. Expe-
rienced Mauritian foresters esti- mated the trees' ages at more than 300 years. These trees produce well-formed, apparently fertile seeds each year, but none germ- inate and no young plants are known. Attempts to induce germ- ination in the controlled and favor- able climate of a nursery have failed. Yet Calvaria was once com- mon on Mauritius; old forestry rec- ords indicate that it had been lum- bered extensively.
Calvaria's large fruits, about two inches in diameter, consist of a seed enclosed in a hard pit nearly half an inch thick. This pit is surrounded by a layer of pulpy, succulent mate- rial covered by a thin outer skin. Temple concluded that Calvaria seeds fail to germinate because the thick pit "mechanically resists the expansion of the embryo within."" How, then, did it germinate in previous centuries?
Temple put two facts together. Early explorers reported that the dodo fed on fruits and seeds of large forest trees; in fact, fossil Calvaria pits have been found among skeletal remains of the dodo. The dodo had a strong gizzard filled with large stones used to crush tough bits of food. Sec- ondly, the age of surviving Cal- varia trees matches the demise of the dodo. None has sprouted since the dodo disappeared almost 300 years ago.
Temple therefore argues that Calvaria evolved its unusually thick pit as an adaptation to resist destruction by crushing in a dodo's gizzard. But, in so doing, they be- came dependent upon dodos for their own reproduction. Tit for tat. A pit thick enough to survive in a dodo"s gizzard is a pit too thick for an embryo to burst by its own re- sources. Thus, the gizzard that once threatened the seed had be- come its necessary accomplice. The thick pit must be abraded and scratched before it can germinate. Several small animals eat the fruit of Calvaria today, but they merely nibble away the succulent middle and leave the internal pit untouched. The dodo was big enough to swallow the fruit whole. After consuming the middle, dodos would have abraded the pit in their gizzards before regurgitating it or passing it in their feces. Temple cites many analogous cases of greatly increased germination rates
r
40
for various seeds after passage through digestive tracts of several animals.
Temple then tried to determine the crushing force of a dodo's giz- zard by making a plot of body weight versus force generated by the gizzard in several modern birds. Extrapolating the curve up to a dodo's size, he estimates that Cal- varia pits were thick enough to re- sist crushing; in fact, the thickest pits could not be crushed until they had been reduced nearly 30 percent by abrasion. Dodos might well have regurgitated the pits or passed them along before subjecting them to such an extended treatment. Tem- ple took turkeys — the closest mod- ern analogue to dodos — and fed them Calvaria pits, one at a time. Seven of seventeen pits were crushed by the turkey's gizzard, but the other ten were regurgitated or passed in feces after consider- able abrasion. Temple planted the ten seeds and three of them germi- nated. He writes: "These may well have been the first Calvaria seeds to germinate in more than 300 years." Calvaria can probably be saved from the brink of extinction by the propagation of artificially abraded seeds. For once, an astute observation, combined with imagi- native thought and experiment, leads to preservation rather than destruction.
With this column, I begin the fifth year of "This View of Life." I said to myself at the beginning that I would depart from a long tradition of popular writing in nat- ural history. I would not tell the fascinating tales of nature merely for their own sake. I would tie any particular story to a general prin- ciple of evolutionary theory: Irish elks to extinction; decoy "fish" on a clam's rear end to the problem of perfection; flies that eat their mother from inside to adaptation. But this column has no message beyond the evident homily that in our complex world things are con- nected to other things — and that local disruptions have wider conse- quences. I have only recounted these two, related stories because they touched me — one bitterly, the other with sweetness.
Biologist Stephen Jay Gould's most recent hook is Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History.
South Carolina's Great Vacation No.l7
The Sea Islands
We have 17 Sea Islands where you can find beaches, sun-drenched resorts, catamaran sailing and horseback riding. Or solitude.
The Sea Islands. Where vacationers, golfers and tennis players have found a mecca. Rare wildlife and waterfowl are here, too. In resort communities designed not to intrude on nature, but to complement it.
And there's still room, '~ ~
here among the dunes and marshes ana moss-draped oaks, for the solitary beachcomber. A walk on the shore yields marvelous treasures. Shells, drifirwood, a silent communion with the sea. Give yourself an island — a South Carolina Sea Island. Whether you come to play, to feast on native shrimp and oysters, or to be alone, you'll leave happy. And youll come back.
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41
1
Tovil: Exorcism by White Magic
by Michael M. Ames
photographs by Yvonne Hannemann
Instead of bell, book, and candle, Sri Lanka's Buddhists use dance, song, and theater to cure demon-caused illness
Legend has it that when Buddha first visited Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), he struck a bargain with the demons. Their karma is to per- secute humans, causing illness and misfortune. But once appeased, the devils must desist. The duty of the benevolent gods, long ago con- verted by Buddha's teachings, is to use their superior power to insure that the demons keep their word.
And so Buddhists of Sri Lanka believe that when someone falls ill and finds no relief in Western or ayurvedic (primarily herbal) medi- cal treatments, a demon (yaka) may be the cause. The patient or his family will then seek the advice of a priest (yakiidura) who specializes in the appeasement and exorcism of yakds and of less dangerous ghosts ipretas). If the priest diagnoses a spirit attack, he will prescribe a tovil ceremony — a long, elaborate ritual exorcism, involving as much as thirty hours of drumming, danc- ing, and chanting.
On February 12, 1978, at the American Museum of Natural History, a troupe from Sri Lanka will perform tovil. the exorcism ceremony of ritual chanting, dancing, and drumming. Tickets for the performance, which starts at 3:00 p.m. in the auditorium, may be purchased by the general public for $5.50 each at the Museum or by calling (212) 581-1105.
For a complete schedule of the troupe's February and March tour of nine other United States cities, contact the sponsor. The Performing Arts Program of the Asia Society, 133 East 58th Street, New York, N.Y. 10022.
Tovil is part of a large collection of magical practices that aid trou- bled Sinhalese Buddhists when all else fails. Many regional varieties of these ceremonial arts exist, but there are only three basic types: exorcism of ghosts and demons, propitiation of planetary deities and astrological powers, and veneration of so-called Hindu gods, who, the faithful say, predate Buddha and have nothing to do with Buddhist teachings or practice.
Officially, Buddhists seek salva- tion from life's suffering through the cycle of rebirths and ultimate redemption from this cycle through purity of thought and deed. But this goal is difficult to understand and even more diflRcult to attain, requir- ing perhaps many thousands of re- births. To cope with daily life, the faithful require more immediate sol- ace. Sinhalese Buddhism faces the dilemma of all redemptive religions: it offers salvation from this world while obliged to remain very much a part of it. Although not a formal part of Sinhalese Buddhism, the three ceremonial systems that con- sole through magic are its comple- ment.
In Sri Lanka's southern low- lands, where I conducted most of my research, the three systems — and the offerings, ceremonies, and priestly mediators they require — are ranked according to the spirits they address. The law of karma dic- tates that all spirits have been re- born in their present forms because of previously earned merit or de- merit. A virtuous person may be reborn as a high deity, while a glut- ton may first become apreta of the deceased and then a ravenous de- mon. At the top of the spiritual scale are deities — almost always benevolent — of varying powers and talents, who aspire to become fu- ture Buddhas. Planetary and astro- logical gods rank somewhere in be-
tween these deities and the consis- tently malevolent demons and ghosts at the bottom of the hier- archy.
Tovil dance drama is therefore the lowest category of magic cere- mony. Only temporary shrines are constructed for its purposes, for demons are certainly not welcome permanently, and appeasement takes the form of impure offerings, such as a cock. The professional status of yakadurds contrasts with that of kapiirdlas, priests who pay homage to benevolent deities. Ka- purdlas may be permanently at- tached to temples, where they can enjoy a guaranteed income, regular hours, and the psychic reward of performing meritorious acts worthy of pious Buddhists. Chasing out demons by means of tovil is neces- sary work, but it lacks virtue. Ya- kadurds perform genuinely thera- peutic services and may come from any social caste, but because they deal with evil, they may be more feared than respected.
Nevertheless, a yakddurd re- quires more knowledge than other priests. During his apprenticeship, he becomes a master of spells and charms, the principal means of con- trolling yakds and pretas. Once he becomes adept at charming, he re- cruits a troupe of assistant magi- cians, dancers, and drummers to work with him. He must memorize many charms, songs, and ballads, and master intricate and frenzied dance routines. In addition to this
As a tovil ceremony begins, a
dancer whirls to drumbeats and
chants. Tovil songs and dances
honor Buddha, appease demons,
and appeal to benevolent gods
who hold sway over evil spirits.
42
I
5 \ ••&: I*
I
r/i^r/^
/
magical lore, the demon priests I knew were as conversant with Bud- dhist theology as most village monks. These yakddurds were also familiar with deity rituals and ayur- vedic medicines. While higher priests can ignore lower systems, yakddurds need some knowledge of all religious phenomena.
Besides knowledge, a yakddurd needs strength to endure his ardu- ous life. If called, he must be will- ing to break his sleep night after night, for he treats people in pain who need and demand quick relief. For a whole night's work, he usu- ally earns only five to forty rupees, depending on the income of the pa- tient's family and the seriousness of the illness. The priest may not be solicited again for more than a month.
Indeed, the frequency of tovil curing ceremonies has declined dur- ing the last century. Denounced as idolatrous superstition by Christian missionaries and Western rational- ists who dominated the develop- ment of modem education in Sri Lanka, tovil has faced increasingly
44
stiff competition from ayurvedic, homeopathic, and allopathic medi- cal systems; Buddhist reform movements; and the growing popu- larity of the Hindu god Katara- gama. Because of changes in the economy, demon priests are hard pressed to earn a decent living. One well-known yakadurd will be the last in his family; his son is a bus conductor and has no plans to pur- sue his father's profession. People who work for wages seem to have less time and money to devote to tovil entertainments, and many of the masks used by tovil dancers have disappeared into European and American collections.
Nowadays the Sinhalese profess skepticism about their world of
While the patient, far left, sits quietly, the chief priest, left, prays over an offering of flowers in an elaborate basket. He will bless both patient and offering with an igaha, a magic wand made of palm leaves, below. The patient's family, under the priest's direction, made the basket, the wand, and other ceremonial objects.
countless demons and ghosts. Nevertheless, one Sinhalese said to me, "I don't believe in all those demons, but I can't be sure that they don't believe in me." When people fall ill, they may seek other remedies first, but, in the spirit of Pascal's wager, they grant that the demons are worth a try.
A tovil ceremony focuses on five important va^'fli. making special al- lowances for other notable demons and for the hordes of lesser demons and ghosts who follow behind. Though symptoms overlap consid- erably, and priests vary in their diagnoses, each yakd is nominally associated with specific diseases. These are either hysteria, in asso- ciation with hallucinations and aberrant behavior, or physical dis- orders, including broken bones, linked with psychological distress. For example, Rlri Yakd, the blood demon, who assumes a variety of human and animal forms in order to dig up fresh graves and devour bodies or suck their blood, is thought to cause fevers, stomach pains, headaches, and hysteria, and is associated with diseases and in- juries that result in loss of blood. Mahasona Yakd, the "great ceme- tery demon," lies in wait in grave- yards for people burying their dead. He also lurks at four-comer inter-
sections, slaughterhouses, and lonely places. He too takes on sev- eral forms, has thirty thousand demonic assistants at his call, and causes cholera, smallpox, and dys- entery. The third arch demon, Huniyan Yaka is one of the most powerful and his tovil is one of the most elaborate.
Kalu Kumdra, known as the "black prince," and his female form, Mohini Yakkhini, are the in- cubus and succubus of Sinhalese mythology. The first causes men- strual disorders in women and young girls, troubles during preg- nancy, and erotic dreams. The suc- cubus visits young bachelors at night, causing nocturnal emissions. She drives young men to distraction or hysteria: her victims may run wildly into the jungle or shout and scream for no apparent reason. For such cases, priests have been known to prescribe marriage as well as exorcism.
The fifth important yaka is Ma- hakola Sanniya Yaka, the demon of delirious and convulsive states, the particularly hideous and power- ful leader of the eighteen sanni, personifications of the terrible mal- adies they cause. During the Sanni- yakuma tovil ceremony, masked dancers impersonate Mahakola and his eighteen assistants. The kola
mask is often elaborate, depicting miniatures of the sanni. The sanni masks, on the other hand, are crudely carved and brightly painted, meant to depict the illness each demon brings. One mask has sightless eyes, while another has a cobra, symbol of deafness, wrapped across one side. During a tovil, all eighteen, although cited in song, never actually appear; five to seven are usually shown, representing mainly psychological disorders. Sinhalese seem to feel that fear causes disease. If a patient's fears are calmed, so that he finds peace and happiness in following the Buddha's teachings, his health will be restored. By alleviating mental distress, tovil enables Buddhists to concentrate on meditation and growth in virtue.
In one version of tovil, a dancer,
below, dresses as the demon being
exorcised. At right, he dances with
flaming torches. Far right, the
patient is carried in a litter to a
burial ground. To fool the
patient's demon persecutors, a
dummy representing him will
be cremated before high noon.
46
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When a yakddurd diagnoses de- mon persecution, the patient's family may opt for a tovil. Once this commitment is made, it must be honored. The patient's horo- scope is consulted for an auspicious date and fees established for the priest and his assistants. The wealthier the family, the more elab- orate the ceremony should be; therefore, the larger the troupe, the higher the price. The simplest pos- sible tovil would involve only one priest and could be conducted in privacy inside the patient's house. But most tovils are held in a court- yard of the family home and call for at least one drummer, several danc- ers, and perhaps a master of spells, usually the leader of the troupe, whose members have probably worked together for years.
The tovil audience has its own role. The ceremony is always a family aflFair, an occasion for friends and relatives to gather and demonstrate emotional and finan- cial support for the patient. Since the tovil begins at dusk and con- tinues at least until dawn or noon of
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the following day, family members and retainers must gather food for the expected well-wishers. The morning before the ceremony, the family, under the chief priest's di- rection, weaves and folds banana stems and young shoots of palm leaves into elaborate shrines and offering containers.
In front of the house, space is cleared for the ceremony itself and for observers. The patient is laid out at one end on a cot or mat, opposite a large gatelike palm leaf structure through which the de- mons must come. Although the to- vil ritual will focus on just one major yaka, each important devil and some pretas must be appeased, and so small shrines and oflFering baskets are also set up.
By late afternoon, the chief priest and his troupe arrive and put on their costumes. Each dancer wears several short white-and-red skirts, one over the other, a short tight jacket, a wide white or red sash, anklets adorned with bells, make- up, and sometimes a turban. While dancing, each may hold tufts of young coconut leaves and later in the evening take up burning torches soaked with oil. The dances begin
slowly and solemnly, but grow pro- gressively more lively, sometimes led by the drums and sometimes counterpointing them. Dancing and commentaries interlace singing and chanting of powerful mantras. As costumes and torches flash, bells jingle, and drums beat rhythmi- cally, performers' and spectators' excitement steadily mounts.
TovU's most dramatic episode, the maha samaydma, takes place just after midnight. One dancer, holding burning torches in his mouth and hands, dances with such frenzy that the audience is led to believe that he goes into trance. Most yakddurds actually avoid trance because they have no wish to be possessed by the demons they are attempting to exorcise. But pa- tients, at least those driven insane (pissu) by demonic possession, may genuinely fall into trance at this point. Some have been known to fake trance. Usually unmarried and sexually frustrated young men and women become pissu — to gain at- tention, to excuse past indiscre- tions, or to elicit parental permis- sion to marry. Villagers enjoy try- ing to detect a faker. They watch the patient's eyes — they should be glazed — and dancing to judge whether he exhibits a demon's expertise.
A possessed patient — or rather, the demon in the patient's body — will be made to dance about the performance arena. Once the de- mon has enjoyed himself and the patient is completely exhausted, the priest bargains. Before consent- ing to depart, theyakd may demand offerings and a second dance.
After the tense pitch of the maha samaydma, the tovil rushes to con- clusion with a bawdy comedy rou- tine. The crowd and the patient are vastly entertained; by tovil's end, bloodthirsty demons have been re- duced to laughable impotence. The procession of the eighteen sanni is particularly comic. These demons, responsible for various illnesses, are presented as ridiculous, retreat- ing buffoons. As they depart, so do the patient's symptoms. One sanni may act totally confused, mistaking a cat for a buffalo or reciting pray- ers in gibberish. Another has diar- rhea and speaks in obscenities.
At about 3:00 a.m. the troupe stages a series of bawdy comic sketches. Left: A masked dancer represents a disease-bearing demon as a clown. Right: Before an ornate palm leaf shrine, another dancer describes tovil's origin, a story that, throughout the ceremony, holds the audience's attention.
In tovil, entertainment is insep- arable from exorcism. Colorful songs and dances honor the gods and placate demons; they also en- tertain assembled guests and dis- tract the patient. By means of words, gestures, and masks, priests confront the sufferer with concrete images ofyakds and pretas who are vanquished before his eyes. While propitiating harmful spirits, a priest is also trying to change the sick person's mental disposition.
Tovil is simultaneously a social event for relatives and friends, ritual drama, therapeutic catharsis for the patient, and theological dis- course. A major tovil's many parts are basically a simple formula, re- peated for each important yaka to emphasize the lowly place of de- mons in the spiritual hierarchy. Officiating priests first pay homage to the Buddha, whose teachings and moral power are supreme. Next the priests appeal to the mercy of the benevolent deities who hold sway over demons. Finally, the demons are appeased with offer- ings and obliged to stop harassing the patient.
Hence the most monstrous ghosts and demons are shown as subject to the law of karma, the teachings of Buddha, and the power of the gods. As demons can be com- batted and subjugated, so can life's daily problems. Yakds and pretas symbolize the impurities — greed, anger, jealousy — humans must purge themselves of before they can win release from suffering. 7b- v/7 not only provides therapy for psychosomatic disorders, but also dramatically reaflRrms the world view of Buddhism at its popular, grass roots level. □
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Ibex in Israel
by Len Aronson photographs by Gail Rubin
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Under strict protection, these biblical goats are shifting through their seasonal home ranges in increasing numbers
The oasis of Ein-Gedi shimmers in the heat on the western flank of the Dead Sea. At 1,302 feet below sea level, this is the lowest area on the surface of the earth. In this part of Israel the crags and steep can- yons of the Great Rift Valley are home to the Nubian ibex, an ex- tremely agile wild goat that is well adapted to extreme temperatures and sparse vegetation. The Ein- Gedi Nature Reserve, which com- prises most of the springs and streams of the oasis, is a particular haven for these biblical animals.
The Nubian ibex (Capra ibex nu- biana) is a subspecies that is dis- tributed in Israel from the northern shore of the Dead Sea along the rift valley as far south as Elat. Small herds exist in parts of the Negev highlands, and limited numbers can be found in the Sinai Peninsula. Nubian ibex also still survive in Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia but their numbers are held down by herds of Bedouin sheep and goats, which present severe competition for ibex, especially in drought years.
The distribution of ibex is limited primarily by the availability of wa- ter: ibex need to drink every few days. Their diet is heavy in halo- phytes (plants with a high salt con- tent), which may explain their de- pendence on drinking water. A wide variety of plants grow within the Ein-Gedi oasis and ibex feed on most of them. In addition to the desert-adapted halophytes, ibex also favor the savanna-type trees of the area, such as the toothbrush tree, the horseradish tree, and the Christ's-thorn tree. When there is
sufficient rain in winter, water holes form in the surrounding can- yons and wadis and the ibex can range farther from the oasis.
Ibex are normally browsers, but if sufficient grass cover exists, they prefer to graze. They begin to feed with the first light of day, and dur- ing the average thirteen hours of daylight, they spend about half the time eating, moving from one food source to another. During the hot- test hours, the ibex rest and rumi- nate. At sunset they climb to a safe sleeping place for the night.
In drought years, however, ibex may continue to feed after dark or they may move up to their sleeping spot at sunset and come down to eat in the middle of the night. The presence of a tapetum in their eyes indicates an adaptation for night vi- sion. The tapetum insures that light coming into an eye has two chances of stimulating the visual cells, in- stead of only one as in the eyes of most diurnal mammals.
With the exception of the Red Sea coast, the Dead Sea area has the highest summer and winter temperatures in Israel. Ibex are mainly diurnal and much of their feeding is done under very hot and arid conditions, but they are well suited to do so. Their shiny summer coat is an important factor in keep- ing body temperature down by re- flecting solar radiation. The base of each hair is black and so is the skin, preventing absorbtion of harmful ultraviolet rays. Movement during the hottest part of the day is mini- mal, and much of the heat load is dissipated through panting.
Ibex are gregarious and are nor- mally found in socially structured groupings that allow for an orderly daily routine, with harmful fighting kept to a minimum. Larger males tend to band together and have few social interactions with females and younger males. This separation ap-
pears to be caused by yearling fe- males remaining within their moth- ers' home range, and by the ten- dency of young males to seek social relationships with other males of their size and age group. As they get older, males vacillate between female-young groups and inter- mediate male groups (three to five years old). At the age of six or seven, they finally join up with one of the large male groupings.
A well-defined hierarchy exists within the male group social struc- ture. Those who dominate are large bodied and large horned. Among the females there is also a hierar- chical structure, but this is little understood. Since the maximum size of a female's horn rarely ex- ceeds that of a yearling male, fe- males are dominated by males two years old and up.
Dominant males secure their positions in the hierarchy by se- rious fights in which the force of a blow can snap a horn. Usually, the loser is not physically banished, although in some cases he may temporarily leave the home range. Once established, the hierarchy is constantly reinforced by displays and nonserious fighting. Almost all of these interactions take place be- tween individuals that are more or less equal in size. Preparation for these dominance fights starts at an early age, with two-week-old kids practicing fighting behavior. The most characteristic behavior pat- tern of dominant males is a horn threat — lowering the head in a men-
Bey ond reach of predators, a herd
of Nubian ibex negotiate a trail
on a sheer cliff of the Great Rift
Valley in Israel. Their spongy
hoofs help them grip the rocks.
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acing position and preparing to butt. This is usually enough to induce subordinate behavior in smaller males and females. In gen- eral, males that reach the alpha po- sition within a herd maintain it for only two or three years. Younger males can therefore rise in the hier- archy and eventually have an op- portunity to mate.
The dominant males do most of the courting and mating during the rutting season, but there is a defi- nite distinction between dominance and leadership. This is well illus- trated in mixed herds. The males in such herds dominate the females in matters of food and resting spots; but when the herd is in movement, one of the older females invariably takes the lead.
There is a high mortality rate among males seven years and older, and there are almost no instances of males living more than twelve years. Old males tend to walk alone rather than in a herd or small group. They are quite heavy, more than 175 pounds in some cases, and not
as agile as younger males and fe- males. This makes them easy prey for leopards, which are increasing in the Dead Sea region.
The desert race of leopard, for- meriy thought to be extinct in Is- rael, is an important factor in keep- ing the ibex population down. An examination of dozens of leopards'
scats showed that ibex make up the main part of their diet. The reaction of ibex to the presence of a leop- ard is interesting. Ibex exhibit a great deal of curiosity. Even when fleeing danger, they will stop and turn around to look at their pur- suer. On one occasion I observed a group of about twenty ibex that had
52
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Just prior to the rut, several males within a herd "present" their horns to one another (top, preceding page). This behavior helps to establish rankings in the dominance hierarchy, although the alpha male position has already been decided. If two contestants have horns of similar size, neither may back off and they may exchange butts intense enough to snap a horn. A breeding male (bottom, preceding page) performs a lip curl caused by smelling the urine of an estrous female. Two juveniles (left) imitate the adult copulatory posture. A dominant male, below, approaches a female restingfrom his attentions.
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discovered the presence of a leop- ard. They began to close in and to stare at him in a fashion similar to that of mobbing in birds. They all showed nervous reactions — raising their tails in the air, stamping their forelegs, and whistling nervously. They continued to close in until they were about forty-five feet from
the leopard, which finally got up and moved away.
On another occasion, my dog was the object of ibex curiosity. In the evening twilight, my dog and I were sitting near one of the springs in the oasis. A group of ibex sighted the dog and began to move in until they were within six feet of us.
Being a well-disciplined animal, the dog sat quietly. However, the tension became so great for her that she finally broke for the ibex. In a matter of seconds they reached a nearby cliflFand were out of danger. Their spongelike hoofs are able to grip rocks where a single slip could mean death or, at best, severe in-
53
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jury. This ability is the best defense of the ibex, although large males are able to inflict terrific blows with their three-foot-long horns.
Ibex are not territorial animals in that they do not defend areas to pre- vent trespassing by other individ- uals. The area that ibex cover in their daily activities is their home range. According to the time of year and the