CORNEIX UNrVERSIXY

LIBRARIES

ITHACA, N. Y. 14853

JOHN M OLIN

LIBRARY

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3 1924 029 955 428

The original of tliis bool< is in
tlie Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924029955428

S^ BRAITHET
P^'^' LLEWELYN m
^^>-" FEWSTLR, r?

i 1 !

MEDIEVAL GEOGKAPHY

AN ESSAY

IN ILLUSTRATION OF THE

HEEEFOED MAPPA MUNDI

THE EEV. W. L. BEVAN, M.A.

VIOAE OP HAT
AUTHOB OF THE 'STUDENT'S MANUALS OP ANCIENT AND MODERN QEOGKAPHY '

THE EEV. H. W. PHILLOTT, M.A.

PR.ffiLECTOR OP HEREFORD CATHEDBAIi AND RECTOR OF STANTON-ON-WTE

LONDON
E. STANFOED, CHAEING CEOSS I '/ y'^
HEREFORD \, '■

E. K. JAKEMAN. JOSEPH JONES.

1873

uf

30^-
B57

97

Priniidhy R. & R. Clahk, Edinhurgh.

PREFACE.

The present Essay owes its existence to the recent publication
of a lithographed facsimile of the well-known Mappa Mundi
in Hereford Cathedral. The promoters of that work under-
took to supply the purchasers of it with an explanatory com-
mentary, for the benefit of those who might lack either the
time or the taste for unravelling the mysteries of Mediaeval
Geography. Some delay has occurred in the ^fulfilment of
this engagement from the necessity of providing the authors
of the commentary with copies of the map for the preparation
of their work, but the subscribers will, it is hoped, be com-
pensated for the delay by its greater completeness. The
original design has been enlarged by the addition of an
Introduction which deals with the general principles of
Mediaeval Geography, and the various appliances at hand
for its study ; it is of a somewhat discursive character, and
intended rather to incite others to a further study of the
subject, than to supply them with a complete manual.

The authors of the Essay disclaim all pretension to special
qualifications for the task they have undertaken. They have
not, previously to this, had occasion to direct their attention
to Mediaeval Geography, and they have laboured under some
disadvantage from the difficulty of obtaining access to rare
works connected with mediaeval literature. Doubtless there
are many scholars in this country who have made Mediaeval

PEEFACE.

Geography their special study ; and the authors of this Essay
•will be fully compensated for their labour if it should have
the effect of drawing attention to a somewhat neglected sub-
ject, and of eliciting from some such persons as these a more
complete work than the present one.

The objects which the authors of the Essay have proposed
to themselves, have been not only to give a complete transcript
of the contents of the map, and to identify and explain (where
necessary) the meaning of the names and legends, but further
to ascertain the sources whence the cartographer drew his
materials, and thus to present the reader with a picture of the
literary appliances in vogue among geographers of the 13th
century. They cannot pretend that their researches have
been completely successful ; some names have defied all
attempts at identification, and the originals of the legends are
in some instances still unascertained ; but these cases are
exceptional, and will not, it is to be hoped, produce an un-
favourable opinion as to the zeal of the authors. Should any
of their readers be able to supply the lacunce in the identifi-
cations of the names, it would be regarded as a favour if they
would communicate their views to either of the authors.

In transcribing the names and legends, it was decided,
after some deliberation, that it would be better to resolve the
abbreviations which were so commonly used in writing Latin
at the period of the map, but at the same time to retain the
peculiarities of orthography, and in aU cases to give the ipsis-
sima verba of the cartographer. Wherever the sense of a
passage is impaired by his mistakes, corrections have been
introduced in brackets and with a different type. A table of

PEEFACE.

the chief peculiarities in the orthography of the period has
been introduced at the end of the Introduction, page xlvii.

The authors regret that they have been unable to throw
much light on the history of the Pictorial Illustrations of the
map ; whether these are to be regarded as original designs, or
whether they are copies from earlier representations of the same
subjects, is a point on which they are not prepared in all cases
to offer an opinion ; at all events, they have not always suc-
ceeded in tracing back the designs to earlier docuinents. It
would also be an interesting subject (but one not altogether
within the scope of the present publication), to trace the
genealogy of similar illustrations in a downward direction, and
to see how far they may have been derived from a common
source. Those who possess the earlier editions of Mandeville's
Travels, will not fail to observe the strong family likeness in the
illustration of the Sciopodes, who shaded themselves from the
sun's rays by interposing the ample expanse of their single foot,
as given in that work and in the Hereford map. The Nurem-
berg Chronicle (1493) contains (fol. 12) numerous illustrations
in common with our map, such as the Cynocephales, or dog-
headed race, the single-footed race, the men with the heads
between their shoulders, the Ambari (of the map) with their
feet turned backwards, the men with an orifice instead of a
mouth, the Pannotii with enormous ears, the men with huge
under-lip, the Satirii with cloven feet and goats' horns, the
Pigmies, and the horse-footed race. In Munster's Cosmo-
grwphia Universalis (1574) these illustrations re-appear, with
the exception of the Ambari, together with illustrations of the
Unicorn, the Giants, and the Phcenix.

PEEFACE.

While the authors have jointly revised the whole of the
work, it may be explained that the Eev. H. W. Phillott has
contributed the chapters on Asia, — II., III., and IV., with
portions of chapter V. (pp. 102-103, 108-110), and the notice
of the Bestiaries in the Introduction (p. xxxiii.) ; and that
the Eev. W. L. Bevan has written the remainder of the work,
comprising the Introduction, and chapters I., V., VI., VII.,
VIII., and IX.

The thanks of the coUaborateurs engaged on the Hereford
Map (including under this head the Eev. F. T. Havergal and
Mr. Haddon, whose attention was more particularly directed
to the production of the facsimile), are due to many friends
who have kindly aided them with advice and assistance.
They desire to specify more particularly the Eev. S. Clark,
who has been prevented by a press of literary engagements
from taking a larger share in the work ; Dr. Bull, who has
given much practical advice ; the Eev. T. T. Smith, who aided
in deciphering the names on the map with the microscope ;
Mr. Eichard Sims, of the British Museum, for information on
literary topics ; and Mr. W. H. Weale, of Bruges, for his
supervision of the engravers and printers during the progress
of the work there. In addition to these acknowledgments
of the whole body of the coUaborateurs, the authors of the
Essay desire to express their special obligations to the Eev. F.
T. Havergal for his unwearied attention to the points on which
they have sought his advice and assistance during the pre-
paration of their work.

Three photographic illustrations of the following objects
are introduced into the work : — (1.) The miniature "Psalter"

PEEFACE.

map iu the British Museum. (2.) A portion of the origiual
Mappa Mundi, given for the purpose of testing the accuracy
of the facsimile. (3.) The recently executed facsimile of the
Mappa Mundi, which may be found useful for reference,
particularly by those who have not at hand the facsimile
itself. The two last have been skilfully executed by Messrs.
Ladmore, photographers, Hereford ; and it may not be out of
place to mention that these artists have published copies of
the facsimile, of the following sizes and prices : — 13 in. x
11, at 8s. 6d. ; 11 in. X 9, at 6s. ; and 5| in. x 4|, at 2s.

A list is appended of the names of those who have kindly
supported the undertaking by purchasing copies of the fac-
simile ; a few copies remain on hand, and may be procured
from the Eev. F. T. Havergal, The College, Hereford.

November 1873.

LIST OF SUBSCRIBEES

TO THE

FACSIMILE OF THE HEREFORD MAPPA MUNDI.

Anthony, Charles, Esq., Hereford.

Arkwright, J. H., Esq., Hampton Court, Herefordshire.

Aston, J. C, Esq., Withington, Hereford.

Bain, Mr. J., 1 Haymarket, London.

Baker, Key. Sir Henry, Bart., Monkland.

Baldwin, Alfred, Esq., Bewdley.

Beauchamp, Eight Hon. Earl, Madresfield.

Beddoe, H. C, Esq., Hereford.

Benson, Rev. E. W., D.D., Lincoln.

Birchall, J. D., Esq., Bowden Hall, Gloucester.

Birmingham Free Library.

Blackbume, Kev. J., Leamington.

Bodenham, E. L., Esq., Hereford.

Bothamley, Rev. H., Bath, 2 copies.

Bowell, W., Esq., Hereford.

Bristol Public Museum and Library.

Brooks, CunUffe, Esq., M.R, Grosvenor Square, London.

Bull, H. G., Esq., M.D., Hereford.

Cambeidgb, St. John's College.

Capper, Rev. D., Lystone Court, Hereford.

Chadwick, E., Esq., Pudlestone Court, Herefordshire.

Chatfield, Rev. A. W., Much Marcle.

Clive, Rev. Archer, Whitfield, Herefordshire.

Clive, Mrs. George, Perrystone, Ross.

Glutton, Rev. J., Hereford.

Cooke, W. H,, Esq., Q.C, Wimpole Street, London.

LIST OF SUBSCEIBEES.

Corbett, J., Esq., Stoke Manor, Bromsgrove.
Crane, Mrs. Henry, Oakhampton, Stourport.
Creed, R., Esq., Church Row, Hampstead.

Davies, Rev. James, Moorcourt, Kington.

Davies, Llewellyn, Esq., Wavertree, Liverpool.

Devonshire, His Grace the Duke of, Devonshire House, London.

Dixon, Rev. R., High School, Nottingham.

Dobson, Mrs. "W., Oakwood, Bath.

EwiNG, "W., Esq., Glasgow.

Feilden, Colonel, Dulas Court, Hereford.

Field, Cyrus, Esq., America.

Foley, Right Hon. Lady EmUy, Stoke Edith Park, Hereford.

Freer, Mrs., St. James's, West Malvern, 2 copies.

Godwin, Mr. W., Lugwardine.
Gore, Mrs. Ormsby, Oswestry.
Guise, Sir W., Bart., Elmore Court, Gloucester.

Habeeshon, W. S., Esq., Bloomsbury Square, London.

Hadow, S. B., Esq., Great Malvern, 2 copies.

Harcourt, Lady Frances, Weobley (deceased).

Harding, Lieutenant-Colonel, Barnstaple, Devon.

Herbert, Major-General the Right Hon. Sir P. E., M.P., K.C.B., Styche,

Market Drayton.
Hereford, Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of.
Hereford, Hon. and Very Rev. the Dean of.
Hereford Cathedral, Custos and Vicars of.
Hill, Rev. H. T., Felton.
Holliday, J. R., Esq., Birmingham.
Holt, H. F., Esq.

Hoskyns, C. W., Esq., M.P., Harewood, Ross.
Hutchinson, C. S., Esq., Longworth, Hereford.

Jbbb, Rev. J., D.D., Hereford.
Jenkins, H. J., Esq., Holmer, Hereford.
Johnson, Mrs., Eigne, Hereford.
Jones, Mr. Joseph, Hereford.

LIST OF SUBSCEIBEES.

Key, Kev. H. Cooper, Stretton Sugwas.
Kmglit, J. B., Esq., Downton Castle, Ludlow.
Knowles, James, Esq., Olapham.

Labmoee and Son, Messrs., Hereford.

Lawrence, Rev. W. E., Ewyas Harold.

Lee, J. E., Esq., Carleon, Newport.

Lewis, Eev. Sir G. F., Bart., Harpton Court, Radnorshire.

Lincoln, Dean and Chapter of.

Lingen, Charles, Esq., Hereford.

Liverpool Free PuhUc Library.

London, Society of Antiquaries.

GmldhaU Library.

— — ^ London Library.
■ Sion College Library.

Longmans and Co., Messrs., London.
Lucas, F., Esq., Trinity Place, London.

Manchbstek, Chetham's Library.

Public Free Library.

Martin, G. C, Esq., Hereford.

Martin, Major W., Brompton Crescent, London.

Murray, John, Esq., Albemarle Street, London.

NiBLETT, J. D., Esq., Gloucester, 2 copies.

Nichols, J. Gough, Esq., Holmwood Park, Dorking.

Nott, Mr. James, Great Malvern.

OusELEY, Rev. Sir F. Gore, Bart., Tenbury.
Ouvry, F., Esq., Society of Antiquaries, London.
Oxford Union Society.

Palmer, Rev. P. H., Woolsthorpe, Grantham.
Partridge, Mrs. Otto, Easton Court, Tenbury.
Phayre, Sir A. P., C.B., K.C.S.I.

Rankinb, J., Esq., Bryngwyn, Hereford.
Reynolds, J. J., Esq., Hereford.
Reynolds, Miss, 21 Cobham Road, Bristol.
RoweU, J. W., Esq., Newton Abbot, Devon.
Russell, Mrs., Streatham Hill.

LIST OP SUBSCEIBEES.

Save and Sele, Eigtt Hon. and Ven. Loed, Hereford.

Scott, Sir G. Gilbert, E.A., Spring Gardens, London.

Shaw, GUes, Esq., Winterdyne, Bewdley.

Slatter and Eose, Messrs., Oxford.

Smith, Rev. 0. L., Little Canfield, Chelmsford.

Smith, Eev. T. T., Thiuxtone.

Smith, Vassar, Esq., Gloucester.

St. John, Eev. H. F., Leeds.

Tebbs, H. v., Esq., Westhnry-on-Trym.
Temple, Eev. H., Leeds.
Tyssen, J. E., Esq., Brighton.

Vaux, W., Esq., Union Society, Oxford.
Venables, Eev. E. Lister, Lysdinam Hall, Builth.

Walker, J. S., Esq., Malvern WeUs.

Ward, C, Esq., Clifton.

Wasborough, S., Esq., Clifton.

Wharton, Eev. J. C, WUlesden, Middlesex.

Wilson, S., Esq., Hereford.

WUton, Eev. T. C, Toy, Eoss.

Wood, E. H., Esq., Crumpsall, Manchester.

Woodhonse, J. S., Esq., Holmer.

Wnrtzbnrg, J. H., Esq., Leeds.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

PAGE

§ 1. Enumeration of treatises on mediaeval geography — Want of

a complete work on this subject ■ ix

§ 2. The Latin and Arabian schools of geography contrasted.
Origin of the divergence between them — Prejudicial effects
of Patristic authority on the Latin school — Influence of the
Arabian on the Latin school x

§ 3. Peculiarities of mediaeval geography — Oentrality of Jeru-
salem xiii

§ 4. Effect of the centrality of Jerusalem on the arrangement of

the map of the world - xiv

§ 5. Extent of the habitable world as known to mediaeval geo-
graphers — Erroneous view as to the Caspian Sea — Belief in
the existence of other continents - xv

§ 6. Various forms of mediaaval maps — circular, quadrangular,
oval, ovoid, and the form indicated on the " Matthew Paris "
maps - - 1 _ xvii

§ 7. The ocean and its chief gulfs as represented in mediaeval

maps xix

§ 8. The orientation of mediaaval maps — The East generally at

the head of the map xx

§ 9. The Terrestrial Paradise — Belief in its continued existence xx

§ 10. Incompatibility of the mediaeval system with accurate carto-
graphy — The scientific subordinated to the historical and
romantic elements — Predilection for the marvellous — Con-
nection between this and false etymology xxi

§ 11. Materials with which mediaeval cartographers fiUed their
maps. (1.) Biblical — Leading events of the Old and New
Testaments — Belief in the contemporaneous existence of Gog
and Magog. (2.) Classical — Gross ignorance and carelessness
of mediaeval cartographers — Views as to the course of the

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Nile. (3.) Legendary — The Alexandrian Eomance — St.
Brandan — Prester John. (4.) Contemporaneous — ^Almost
entirely confined to Europe, and even there very imperfect

xxiii-xxviii

§ 12. Brief notices of the leading authorities in vogue among
mediseval geographers — Pliny, Pomponius Mela, Antonini
Itinerarium, Solinus, Orosins, Macrobius, Priscian, Marcianus
Capella, Isidorus, and .ffithici Gosmographice — Notices of
Cosmas Indicopleustes and Geographus Eavennas xxvui-xxxii

§ 13. Brief notices of mediseval authors and works bearing on
geography — Bede, Dicuil, Imago Mundi, Alexandrian Eo-
mance, Eoger Bacon, Gervase of Tilbury, Ealph Higden,
Paulus Diaconus, Eabanus Maurus, Adam of Bremen, and
ly^arino Sanuto — Bestiaria and Herbaria xxxii

§ 14. Notes on mediseval maps preserved in Great Britain — (1.)
Anglo-Saxon map of the 10th century, in the British Museum.
(2.) Map of the 12th century at St. John's College, Oxford.
(3.) The " Imago Mundi " map of the 1 2th century, at Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge. (4.) The " Apocalypse " map
of the 12th century, in the British Museum. (5, 6.) The
" Matthew Paris " maps of the 1 3th century, at the British
Museum and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. (7.) The
" Psalter " map of the 1 3th century, at the British Museum.
(8.) Maps in Brunetto Lattini's Livre du Tresor at the Bodleian
Library, Oxford. (9-16.) The "Higden" maps of the 14th
century, at the British Museum ; the Advocates' Library,
Edinburgh ; Corpus Christi College, Oxford ; Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge; and Winchester College. (17.) Map
of the 15th century at the College of Arms, London xxxiv-xlv

CHAPTEE I.

General Characteristics of the Hereford Map — Life of its Author,
Ricardus de Bello — Date of the Composition — Sources from
which the Materials were drawn — History of the Map — Its
Literary History — Its Dimensions, and the Materials used in
drawing it — Description of the Illustrations surrounding the
Map— The Four Quarters of the World— The Table of the
Winds — The Inscription " Mors " — The Ocean — The General
Arrangement and chief Divisions of the Map 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II.
ASIA.

PAGE

Boundaries — Terrestrial Paradise — The Dry Tree — India — Golden
Mountains — Pigmies — Avalerionpar in Mundo — Palimbothra
— Mons Malleus — Taprobane and the Islands of the Indian
Ocean — Gangines — Monoculi — Ganges — Tile — Mons Tima-
vus — Animals attributed to India 25

CHAPTER III.

ASIA — Continued.
Bactria — Hunni — Scythia and Serica — ^Eonese Insulse — Olchi — ■
Mons Molans — Gog and Magog — Sogdiana — Samarkand^
Islands of the Northern Ocean — Hyperboreans — Turks —
Scythotauri Scythse — Arimaspi — ^Albani — Colchis — Caspian
Gates 45

CHAPTER IV.
ASIA — Gontinued.
Asia Minor — Armenia — Media — Persia — Assyria — Mesopotamia

— Syria — Phoenicia — Palestine — Arabia — ^Nubia — ^Egypt 6 6

CHAPTER V.

AFRICA.
Boundaries — Dimensions — Lybia Cyrenensis — Pentapolis — Tri-
politana — Africa Propria — Numidia — ^Mauritania — ^Atlas and
Astrixis — The Western Nile — Ethiopians — Islands of the
Western and Southern Oceans 90

CHAPTER VI.
MEDITERRANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.
Mediterranean Sea and its subdivisions — Gades and the Pillars of
Hercules — Balearic Isles — Sardinia, Corsica, and the adjacent
Isles — The Liparean Islands — Sicily — Crete and the adjacent
Isles — Isles of the Adriatic Sea — Cyclades — Mene and Cano-
pus — Rhodes, Euboea, Cyprus, etc. — Isles placed in the
Euxine Sea -^W

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.
EUROPE.

PAGE

General Description — Spain — Italy — Istria and Libumia — Greece
— ^Macedonia — Illyricum and Dardania — Thrace — Mcesia —
Dacia — Bulgarii — Alani 122

CHAPTER VIII.

EUROPE — Continued.
Gallia — Germania — Rsetia — Noricum — Pannonia — Hungari —
Sarmatse — Sclavi — Dani — ^Noreya — Cynocephales — Gryphse
— The Seven Sleepers — Islands of Northern Ocean 140

CHAPTER IX.

THE BRITISH ISLES.

Britannia — AngUa— WaUia — Scotia — Hibemia — Man — Insnla

Avium — Insula Arietum — SviUsB 163

Index 175

INTRODUCTION.

§ 1. The primary object of the present publication is to supply an
exposition of the famous " Mappa Mundi " of Hereford Cathedral,
which has been recently made available for geographical students
through the admirable /acsimite of it published in 1872. But before
entering upon our subject it seems desirable, nay, almost essential to
an intelligent comprehension of it, that we should furnish our readers
with a brief rSsum^ of the distinctive principles of mediseval carto-
graphy, so that they may at once be placed at the stand-point whence
such a map should be viewed. Preliminary matter of this kind
would have been superfluous if we could have referred the reader to
any publication in our own language devoted expressly to the subject ;
this, however, we are imable to do. Mediseval geography has indeed
received some degree of attention in works which treat of the general
history of geography. We may specify, among others, the Introduc-
tion to Playfair's System of Geography, Hugh Murray's Encyclopaedia of
Geography, Kerr's Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. 18, and, more
particularly, Cooley's Maritime and Inland Discovery (Lardner's Oyclo-
psedia), the first volume of which contains some interesting references
■to mediseval maps (see book iii. cap. 2). But it did not fall within
the scope of these works to deal exhaustively with mediseval carto-
graphy -J and an essay on this subject, by one fully competent to deal
with it, still remains a desideratum in our geographical literature. On
the Continent a considerable amount of attention has of late years
been given to the subject. Lelewel's Geographie du Moyen Age, and
Santarem's Histoire de la Gosmographie et de la Gartographie, are most
valuable contributions to the history of mediseval geography ; and the
magnificent Atlases of Jomard, Monumens de la Giographie, and San-
tarem. Atlas de Mappemondes et de Portulans, together with the more
unassuming series of maps which accompanies Lelewel's essays, supply
the students with facsimiles of the maps themselves. JBut these works,
particularly the costly Atlases of Jomard and Santarem, are probably

b

X INTRODUCTION.

known to few persons except professed geographers; nor can the
essays of Lelewel and Santarem be regarded as altogether meeting the
requirements of the case.* The present writer does not pretend to be
able to supply the deficiency : he simply draws attention to wants
which wiU probably be recognised by all who are interested in the
subject.

§ 2. In the use of the term " Mediaeval," in the following pages,
we must at the outset beg our readers to understand that we are not
dealing with the whole subject of geography in the Middle Ages, but
with one branch of it only — namely, the Latin or Ecclesiastical school
of geography. Contemporaneously with this there existed another
school of a very different character — the Arabian — which does not
further fall under our cognisance than as it influenced the Latin school
in the later centuries of the mediaeval period. The two schools present
a remarkable contrast, the Arabic being scientific, speculative, progress-
ive ; while the Latin was traditional, stereotyped, full of unrealities
and anachronisms, and bound in the trammels of ecclesiastical authority.
The divergence between these schools dates from a very early period
of Christian literature. We need hardly remind our readers that,
before the close of the true classical age, geography had been placed
on a sound scientific basis by the successive investigations of Eratos-
iihenes, Geminus, Marinus, and, above all, Ptolemy. The sphericity
of the earth, the possibility of calculating its size, the belief in the
existence of inhabited lands on the opposite side of the globe, the
observation of the relative positions of places on the earth's surface,
partly by means of astronomical observation and partly by measurements
of the intermediate distances, and the art of recording the results on
maps by the aid of lines of latitude and longitude — these were among
the valuable discoveries which the Greek geographers bequeathed to
posterity. Much, of course, remained to be done, and the completion
of the work depended on the recognition of past discoveries, and an
adherence to the lines of investigation thus laid down. The Arabs

* Since writing the atove, we have met with the following corroborative
remarks by M. Vivien de Saint-Martin in the V Annie QiograpMgue for 1872, p.
417 : — " Mais quand nous donnera-ta-on, sous une forme k la fois concise et
appropri^e aux etudes gen^rales, une histoire complete de la cartographie de cette
pdriode, accompagn^e de copies artistiquement reduites des principaux monu-
ments conserves dans nos collections ? Cette reuvre reviendrait de droit 5, un de
nos savants qui a fait de cette ^tude en quelque sorte son domaine, et qui mieux
que persoune est prepard k mettre en pleine lumiire ce chapitre de I'histoire girA-
rale de la science. Tout le raonde aura nommd M. d'Avezac."

AEAB AND LATIN SCHOOLS OF GEOGEAPHY. xi

adopted this course : they brought astronomy to bear on geography ;
they established observatories ; they measured an arc of a great circle
of the earth; they studied Ptolemy;* they applied themselves to
define with accuracy the positions of places on the earth's surface ; they
recorded on their maps the discoveries of travellers ; and thus geography
became in their hands a living science. With what ardour they followed
it up, may be judged from the simple fact that Abulfeda cites no fewer
than sixty authors, many of whom lived in the thirteenth century
(Daunou, L'Mtat des Zettres, p. 205). It fared otherwise with geography
within the realm of the Christian Church. The Fathers imagined
that they had detected certain discrepancies between the discoveries of
science and the language of Holy Writ. The particular point on which
their suspicion fastened was the existence of the Antipodes. It was
assumed that no communication was possible, or had ever been possible,
between our own continent and other quarters of the globe. Even if
other continents existed, they were supposed to be cut off from our
own by an ocean rendered impassable from its lying under a tropical
zone of insupportable heat. On this assumption it was, of course,
impossible that a population could have been derived from the stock
of Adam ; and, consequently, the whole theory of its existence was
opposed to the language of Holy Writ, which throughout assumes
that God " hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on
all the face of the earth'' (Acts xvii. 26). Lactantius, in the 4th
century, was carried by his zeal for the truth so far as to impugn the
theory as a physical impossibility, and to deny the sphericity of the
earth t (Institut. iii. 24). St. Augustine, whUe equally determined in
his rejection | of the Antipodes, is more cautious in the statement of
his reasons : he argues that, even if the world be spherical, it does not
follow that there should be land on the opposite side of it ; and even
if there be land, it does not foUow that it should be inhabited ; nay,

* The work entitled RasiTi el Arsi, which served as the text-hook for Arabian
geographers, was » translation of Ptolemy's geographical work made in the 9th
century. It appears to have differed in various particulars from the original
(Lelewel, ii. 20).

i" ** Ineptum credere esse homines quorum vestigia sint superiora quam capita
aut ibi quae apud nos jaoent inversa pendere ; fruges et arhores deorsum versus

crescere hujus en'orem philosophis fuisse quod existimarent rotundum

esse mundum."

J ' ' Quod vero et Antipodas esse fabiilautur, id est, homines a contraria parte
terrse ubi sol oritur quando occidit nobis, adversa pedibus nostris calcare vestigia,
nulla ratione oredendum est.'

xii INTEODUCTION.

inasmucli as none could cross from this side to that, it must needs be
uninhabited {De Civ. Dei, xvi. 9). The dictum of so illustrious a
doctor was conclusive. Other writers adopted similar views, and in
the 6th century an Egyptian monk, Oosmas, surnamed Indicopleustes,
wrote a learned treatise for the express purpose of disproving the
sphericity of the earth. The prejudicial effects of this line of treat-
ment did not stop here. Geography was henceforth forced into the mould
of a pseudo-orthodoxy ; and the language of the Bible, as interpreted by
the Fathers, became the test of truth in regard to cosmology : scientific
processes were discouraged, and all zest for discovery was quenched by
the announcement that there was little or nothing to discover : in short,
the ecclesiastical view impressed the stamp of finality on geographical
science, and both writers and map-makers fell into a narrow groove, to
which they adhered until they were forced out of it by the grand
discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. The tenacity with
which the patristic doctrine was maintained is well exhibited in the
treatment which Columbus experienced. His proposal to circumnavi-
gate the world was referred to a council of divines at Salamanca, who
pronounced it to be not only chimerical but even profane ; as being
contrary to Scripture and the opinions of the Fathers, particularly
Lactantius and Augustine (Irving's Life of Cohimhus, book ii. cap. 3).
Yet at that time a breach had been already made in the mediseval
theory by the progress of maritime discovery : navigators had pene-
trated into the torrid zone, and had reported it to be not impassable :
and thus the very groundwork of the difficulty which the Fathers had
experienced had been removed. It may be a matter of surprise that
the Arabian system should have co-exist^ side by side with the
Latin, and yet have exercised so little iniluence over it. The inhabit-
ants of Western Europe came in contact with the Arabians in Spain,
in the Holy Land during the period of the Crusades, and more parti-
cularly in Sicily, where one of the most illustrious of their geographers,
Edrisi, lived and worked under the patronage of Koger, Count of Sicily,
in the middle of the 12th century. We do indeed meet with
occasional notices which show that the Arab system was not wholly
unknown. Our own enlightened countryman, Roger Bacon, had evi-
dently made himself acquainted with it. In his Opus Majlis, completed
in 1267, he speaks of Arym, the most important point in the construc-
tion of an Arab map, and he shows himself acquainted with its position
on the earth's surface and its use in the study of geography (pp. 141,
146) : he was also familiar with lines of latitude and longitude, and

CENTEALITY OF JEEUSALEM. xiii

particularly notes that the Latins had not yet adopted the system
(pp. 140, 141). With regard to this latter topic, he refers to the
Almagest of Ptolemy and the treatise of Alfragan, which was founded
on the Almagest (p. 140) ; and it may be conjectured that he was
incited to the study of these works by the use which Arab geographers
had made of them. The geographical work of Ptolemy had not yet
been rendered accessible to the general body of students by being
translated into Latin ; it may, nevertheless, have became known
through the Arabic version of it ; for there appear to have been a
fair number of scholars in Europe in the, 13th century who were
acquainted with the Arabic language (Daunou, L'itat, etc. p. 238).
Santarem names the close of the 12th centuiy as the period when
Arabian influence was first felt in the study of geography (iii. Intr. p.
18), and he gives an instance in which Arym or Aryne is noticed by a
Latin writer as far back as 1110 (iii. 311). The amount of influence
thus gained was not, however, sufiicient to afi'ect the Latin system.
That system was indeed entirely incompatible with scientific principles.
Nothing less than a revolution was required ; and this revolution was
efiected partly by the revival of the study of Ptolemy, whose geography
was translated into Latin in 1405 (Lelewel ii. 123), and partly by
the progress of maritime discovery.

§ 3. Foremost among the peculiarities of mediaeval geography we
must place the opinion that Jerusalem occupied the central point of
the habitable world. Whether the tenet was originally based on the
language of Scripture, or whether the language of Scripture was applied
in confirmation of a preconceived opinion, we are unable to decide.
At all events, it is not the only instance in which men have conferred
honour on their holy places by regarding them as occupying the central
boss or umbilic of the habitable world : it was thus that the Greeks
regarded their Delphi,* the Hindoos their Merou, the Persians their
Kangdiz, and the Arabs their Aryne (Lelewel, i. 34 ; Santarem, iii. 312).
It was not unnatural that the Jews, and still more the Christians,
should attribute the same property to Jerusalem, which for centuries
had been the focus of their aspirations, their anxieties, and their
most devoted exertions. Scripture seemed to sanction this feeling.
We find the following passages quoted for the purpose : — Ezek. v. 5,
" This is Jerusalem ; I have set it in the midst of the nations round
about her." (CeUarius Not. Orb. Ant. i. 11) ; Ps. Ixxiv. 12, which

* S/iipaKos xSovbs, Find. Pyth. vi. 3 ; cf. Soph. CEd. Tyr. 480; Msik. Choeph.
1034. ;

xiv INTEODUCTION.

in the "Vulgate runs thus : — " Operatus est salutem in medio term "
(Gerv. Tilb. Ot. Imp. i. 10 ; Ssewulf in Bohn's Early Travels, p. 38) ;
and again, Ezek. xxxvlii. 12, where the Hebrew word tabiir "the
midst of the land," is rendered in the Vulgate "umbilicus terrae."
(D. Kimchi, quoted by OeUarius, I. c.) The interpretation set on
these passages appears to have been based on St. Jerome's comment
on Ezek. v. 5, though his words go no further than to show that
Judsea was centrally placed in reference to the surrounding countries.
Moses of Chorene, in the middle of the 5th century, is the earliest
geographer (as far as we have been able to ascertain) who asserts the
literal, or, as we may term it, the mathematical centrality of Jeru-
salem (Geog. § 1 7). Isidore, in the 6th century, who was the leading
authority in mediaeval geography, speaks of Jerusalem as " imibiHcus
regionis totius" (Oriff. xiv. 3, § 21), and the same expression is used
by Eabanus Maurus in the 9th century (Be Univ. xii. 4). Marino
Sanuto, in the 14th century, describes Jerusalem as " punctus cir-
cumferentise," and exaggerates the historical claims to centrality by
representing Judsea as having been the seat of each branch of the
human race, and the favoured scene of God's manifestation in the
works of creation and redemption in the past, and of final judgment in
the future {Sec. Fid. Gruc. iii. 1). Mediseval cartographers gave efiect
to these views by placing Jerusalem as nearly as possible in the centre
of the map ; and this remained the custom until the middle of the
15 th century, when Fra Mauro was compelled to shift the centre
somewhat to the eastward, in order to find room for the enlargement
of Asia, consequent on the discoveries of Marco Polo and others.

§ 4. Assuming that Jerusalem occupied the central point of the
habitable world, and taking into regard its position on the western
verge of Asia and in the line of the Mediterranean, it followed — (1)
that Asia held one-half of the world ; (2) that its length from east to
west must equal the length of Europe; and (3) that Europe and
Africa must be equal, or nearly equal, to each other, the Mediterranean
forming the line of division between them. The first of these points
is expressly asserted by geographical writers. " Orbem dimidium duae
tenent, Europa et Africa ; alium vero dimidium sola Asia,'' says
Isidore (Orig. xiv. 2, § 3) : and so we read in the Alexandrian
Romance composed in the 1 3th century : —
" At Asyghe al so muchul is
So Europe and AfTryh, Y wis" (11. 55-6).
The world was thus symmetrically divided into three parts, and this

DIVISIOISrS OF THE WOELD. xv

arrangement is not only embodied in the general structure of mediaeval
maps, but it is expressly set forth in smaU sketch-maps consisting of
a circle divided into an upper and lower half, the latter being sub-
divided by a semi-diameter at right angles to the former — the upper
half representing Asia, the two lower quadrants Europe and Africa.
Such maps assumed the form of a T inscribed in an O, and it appears
from some lines quoted by Col. Yule from Del Dati's poem La Sfera
(3d stanza), that it was usual to describe them by that title (Marco
Polo's Travels, i. 152). Such a sketch-map occurs in Brunetto Latini'a
Livre dv, Tresor (Bodl. Lib., Oxford) ; other examples are represented
in Lelewel's Atlas, plates 6 and 7. In estimating the correctness of
these proportions in themselves, as well as the correctness with which
they are exhibited in maps, it must be remembered that Egypt was
assigned not to Africa but to Asia. The preponderating size of Asia
is accounted for by Gervase of Tilbury on scriptural grounds, inasmuch
as it was in his view the exclusive inheritance of Shem, the first-bom
(Ot. Imp. ii. 2). The symmetrical division of the world was somewhat
marred in the eyes of geographers by the subdivision of the second
moiety, and it was a moot question whether Europe and Africa should
not be regarded as a single continent. Gervase brings Scripture to
bear on this point, and decides in favour of three divisions, on the
ground that Ham and Japhet had their separate domains as well as
Shem (Ot. Imp. ii. 2). This view is occasionally exhibited in the
sketch-maps, which substitute the names Shem, Ham, and Japhet,
for Asia, Africa, and Europe.

§ 5. The habitable world was limited within a circle drawn from
Jerusalem as its centre, and with a radius equalling the distance thence
to the Strait of Gibraltar. It was only at this latter point that the
limit of the Old World was really known. Here was

" The strait pass where Hercules ordain'd
The houndaries not to be o'erstepp'd by man, "

beyond which lay " the deep ilUmitable main,'' " the unpeopled
world," of which the learned as yet knew nothing (Dante, Inferno,
xxvi. 99, 106, 114 : Gary's transl.) Eastward the limit was fixed at
the mouth of the Ganges, which, in accordance with the view of
Orosius, was supposed to discharge itself into the Eastern Ocean. In
this direction, therefore, mediaeval geography, as it stood towards the
close of the 13th century, had not only not advanced beyond the point
at which Ptolemy left it, but had actually receded : nor was it until

xvi INTRODUCTION.

a considerable interval after Marco Polo's adventurous journey that
his discoveries were recorded on maps. Southward, again, the habit-
able world was confined within narrow limits. Inasmuch as, according
to the accepted theory, the torrid zone was occupied by an impass-
able ocean, the coastline of Africa and Asia could not be carried south
of the Tropic of Cancer.* In point of fact, it was supposed to sweep
round with an easy curve from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Indian
Ocean, and mediaeval geographers accepted the views of Solinus (56,
§ 6) and Juba (Plin. vi. 175) as to an easy maritime route connecting
the Atlantic with the Indian Ocean— a felicitous error perhaps, inas-
much as it encouraged the hopes of navigators that the shores of India
might be thus reached ; whereas Ptolemy, by converting the Indian
Ocean into an inland sea, rendered such a step impossible. North-
wards, mediaeval geography had receded in Asia. The Caspian Sea
was again converted into an arm of the Northern Ocean — an error
which appears indeed in Pliny (vi. 36), Solinus (17, § 3), and Orosius
(i. 2), but which finds no place in the Greek geographers, with the
exception perhaps of Strabo (xi. p. 519). This sea remained the
northern limit of Asia in mediaeval geography until the middle of the
13th century, when its true character was revealed by Eubruquis.
Cartographers, nevertheless, adhered to the traditional belief for
another 150 years — ^the earliest map (as far as we know) which ex-
hibits it as an inland sea being that in the Borgia Museum (Santa-
rem, iii. 272). Yet Eoger Bacon, living before the close of the 13th
century, was perfectly well acquainted with Eubruquis' discovery {Op.
Maj. p. 143). From the Caspian Sea the coast line of Asia sloped
round to the mouth of the Ganges, thus shutting out the vast expanse
of northern and eastern Asia. In Europe geography had somewhat
advanced. Alfred the Great had incorporated with his translation of
Orosius an account of the travels of Ohthere and Wulfstan, and most
mediaeval maps indicate some acquaintance with Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark. Iceland and the Faroe group also appear on the stage, side

■■' The siguiflcance of the entry referring to Malleus Mens in the Hereford map
seems to have escaped the observation of the majority of medifeval geographers.
That mountain must have lain, as Roger Bacon perceived {Op. Maj. p. 144),
under the equator ; for the shadows fell alternately north and south for periods of
six months (Solin. 52, § 13). Indeed, Roger Bacon thought that inhabitants from
the neighbourhood of the Tropic of Capricorn had reached Em-ope, referring to
the embassy from Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius. His conclusion is borne out
by Pliny's statement ( " umbras suas in nostrum ccelum ; uon in suum, " vi. 87),
but the statement itself is devoid of foundation.

FOEM OF THE WOELD. xvii

by side with the " Ultima Thiile " of classical geography. If we proceed
to inquire whether mediBeval geographers conceived that there were
other continents besides the one on which they themselves lived, the
answer must be given in the affirmative. The "Apocalypse" map in
the British Museum distinctly recognises the existence of land to the
south of the Indian Ocean — uninhabited, however, on account of its
proximity to the sun. The same feature is exhibited in a similar map
at Turin (Lelewel, Atlas, pi. 7), and again in a planisphere of the 14th
century (Santarem, iii. 102). But the belief in the existence of land
in that quarter did not carry the belief in the existence of inhabitants,
as the addition of the word "fabulose" to the notice of the Antipodes
in the Turin map clearly shows. The question as to the land was
deprived of the interest in the assumed absence of a population, and
hence, though the sphericity of the earth was an accepted belief,* little
speculation was raised as to the character of its surface on the oppo-
site side to our own quarter. Probably the majority acquiesced in
the view of Macrobius (In Somn. Scip. ii. 9), that there were four such
worlds as our own symmetrically distributed over the four quarters of
the globe. We have thus stated the limits of the habitable world as
known at the close of the 13th century. The discoveries of Carpini,
Eubruquis, and Marco Polo, filtered slowly into the maps of the 14th
century, and did not receive full justice until the middle of the 15th
century, when they were exhibited in the celebrated map of Pra Mauro.
§ 6. The form of the habitable world, as depicted in mediaeval
maps, varied ; but the prevailing usage was in favour of the circle, as
being more in consistency with the centrality of Jerusalem. Occa-
sionally the quadrangular shape was adopted, as in the map of Cosmas
Indicopleustes, the Anglo-Saxon map of the British Museum, the
Matthew Paris maps, and, with some modification, the " Apocalypse ''■
map in the British Museum. The selection of this form may have
been based on too literal an acceptation of those passages of Scripture
which speak of the " four comers " of the earth. At all events, it does
not happen to have been supported by any definite theory as to the

* " Corpus autem terrse sphericum est," says the inscription on the 'Matthew
Paris' maps. "Hujus flgnra est in modum pilse, rotunda; sed ad instar ovi,
elementis distincta. Ovum quippe exterius testa undique amhitur, testa albu-
men, albumine vitellum vitello gutta pinguedinis includitur. Sic mundus undi-
que ccelo ut testa circiundatur : coelo vero purus aether ut albumen, astheri
turbidus aer ut vitellum, aeri terra nt pinguedinis gutta includitur." (Imago
Mundi, cap. 1 ; cf. Ot. Imp. i. 1, where the. same comparison is used.)

xviii INTRODUCTION.

real shape of the world. Modifications of the circular — oval or ovoid
— were also used— the former in the case of the " Imago Mundi " map
at 0. 0. C, Cambridge, and some of the " Polychronicon " maps, which
we shall hereafter specify— the ovoid, in the form of a vesica piscis, in
three of the " Polychronicon " maps. Santarem (iii. pp. 82, 83) thinks
that these forms were selected to represent certain theories of the
ancient Greek philosophers. We see no ground for this. The varia-
tion from the circular to the oval may have been a mere matter of
convenience, and the modification of the oval into the ovoid may have
arisen from the symbolism attached to the vesica piscis in Christian
art. At all events, if any deeper reasons existed for the selection of
these forms, we should be inclined to refer them, not to the views of
Thales and Posidonius, but to the authority of Priscian's Periegesis — a
work of great popularity in the middle ages — according to which the
world would resemble two cones united at their bases.* Yet so little
attention was paid to this view, that the Anglo-Saxon map, which is
prefixed to a copy of the Periegesis, assumes a quadrangular shape.
The circular form, on the other hand, commended itself to carto-
graphers as harmonising best with the centrality of Jerusalem, and
perhaps also with the etymological meaning of "orbis,'' as noticed by
Isidore.t We have to notice yet another form, theoretically more
correct than any of the above, which is noticed in the curious inscrip-
tion on the " Matthew Paris " maps. We are there told that the world
in its truest form resembles an extended military cloak (chlamys extensa).
The chlamys consisted of a central square with gears or wings added to
it, which gave it, when extended, a considerably greater width at the
bottom than at the top, rendering it (as the inscription proceeds to
say) almost triangular {triaiiguloA-is fere), the difierence between it and
a perfect triangle consisting (as we suppose) in the absence of the apex,
the triangle being (as it were) truncated. The comparison with the
" chlamys extensa" is no doubt borrowed from Macrobius,J who in turn

* " Si placet Europes quoque me tibi dioere formam.

Hand taceam similis Libyse est

Ast ambas uuam si terras esse putemus
Assimulent conum laterum compagibus sequis " (259-265).
" Ast Asise fines ambarum linea monstrat
Et formam, contra positanim in imagine coni " (614, 615).
t " Orbis a rotunditate circuli dictus quia aicut rota est" (Orig. xiv. 2, § 1).
t " Denlque veteres omnem liabitabilem nostram extentaj chlamydi simile esse
dixerunt" (De Somn. Sclp. ii. 9), where Macrobius is commenting on Cicero's
description " angusta verticibus, lateribus latior " (De RepuUica, vi. 20).

THE OCEAN. xix

borrowed it from Strabo (ii. p. 113). The form intended closely
resembles that of the maps which illustrate the views of Strabo and
Ptolemy. We are told in the inscription that this form was exhibited
in a map which was deposited in the Court of Exchequer at West-
minster, and which was copied by Matthew Paris ("in ordine Matthsei
de Parisio "). Unfortunately neither of these maps survives.

§ 7. The ocean is depicted in mediseval maps as a narrow band
encircling the earth, like the ocean " river " of Homeric geography. It
was thus that the cartographers gave effect to the representations of
Isidore and other writers.* Gervase of TUbury states that this circular
arrangement was held to be indicated in the language of Gen. i. 9 : —
"Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one
place, and let the dry land appear ;f and the treatise called Imago
Mundi quotes to the same effect Ps. civ. 6 : — " Who coveredst it with
the deep as with a garment," — the ocean being as it were only the rim
of the subjacent world of waters. We need not assume that mediasval
writers adopted the Homeric theory as to the narrowness of the
ocean, though the maps appear to express it. The river-Uke aspect
which it assumes in their maps simply arises from the absence of all
motive for extending its width. The general opinion doubtless was
that the habitable world was, as Cicero J expresses it, a " small island "
surrounded by a vast expanse of ocean (see Augustine, § ^p. CI. iii. 199,
ordo nova). In the middle ages the favourite legend of St. Brandan
must have contributed to enhance the estimate of its size. From the
ocean four inland seas are described as penetrating deeply into the
interior of the world — viz. the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Per-
sian Gulf, and the Caspian Sea, which last (as we have already
noticed) was held to be an ocean gulf. These four gulfs are con-

* " Undique enim Oceauus circumfluens ejus in ciroulo amMt fines" (Isidore,
Orig. xiv. 2, § 1). "Quod in circuli mode [Oceanus] ambiat ortiem" (Eabanus
Maurus De Univ. xi. 3). "Molem terras ambit Oceanus in modum circuli" (Hig-
den, Polychron. i. 9). "Haec in circuitu Oceano, ut limbo cingitur, ut scribitur,
Abyssus sicut vestiraentum amictus ejus" {Imago Mundi, i. 6).

t " Sunt qui dicunt terram ut centrum in medio circumferentise omni parte
asqualiter ab extremitatibus distautem marl circumcingi atque concludi, secundum
Ulud tertiae diei, congregavit aquas sub firmamento in unum et apparuit arida ;
subsidit enim terra ut centrum" {Ot. Imp. i. 13).

X " Oninis enim terra quge colitur a nobis, parva qusedam insula est, " etc.
(Rep. vi. 20).

§ "Sicut in universe orbe terrarum, quje tanquam omnium quodamniodo
maxima est insula, quia et ipsam ciiigit oceanus.''

XX INTEODUCTION.

spieuous objects in mediaeval maps from the time of Cosmas down-
wards. Tlie Baltic and the Bay of Biscay are also introduced into the
Hereford map, but as objects of minor importance.

§ 8. The orientation of mediaeval maps is peculiar. While modem
map-drawers place the north at the head of the map, our predecessors
in the middle ages, with few exceptions,* placed the east in that position.
Biblical considerations decided them in favour of this arrangement.
The primeval abode of man was in the east : the Terrestrial Paradise
stiU remained there — an object of the deepest interest to the religious
sentiment of the middle ages. What more natural than that the
place of honour should be assigned to it in the map, particularly as
that accorded with the historical method which forms so prominent a
feature in mediaeval cartography ? The map of the world was intended
to picture forth the fortunes of the human race, and Paradise, as form-
ing the starting-point in the stream of time, occupied the head of the
map. The cartographer was probably further influenced by the pro-
minence assigned to the east as one of the "gates of the sun,"t as
compared with the north, which could not be deiined with the same
accuracy.

§ 9. The Terrestrial Paradise, to which we have referred in the
preceding paragraph, forms a constant feature in mediaeval maps, the
most notable exception being the Anglo-Saxon map in the British
Museum, in which it is not entered. Not the slightest doubt was
entertained as to its being an existing contemporaneous fact. Higden
devotes along chapter in his Polychronicon (i. 10) to the discussion of
various questions connected with the subject under the three heads of —
An sit; Ubi sit ; and Qualis sit. Mandeville (cap. xxx.) informs us
that he had not visited it himself on account of his unworthiness, but
he describes it at length on the information of trustworthy persons.
Gervase of Tilbury, in his Otia Imperialia, i. 10, also gives a description
of it. J These views were based on opinions entertained by the

* Santarem (il. p. 65 of preface) notes three exceptions down to the close of
the 14tli century : in two of these the west is placed at the head, and in the third
the south. To these we may add the map of Brunetto Latuii, in which the south
is placed at the top. At a later period we hare the large map of Fra Mauro
similarly arranged. The interesting map of Pierre d'Ailly in 1410, on the other
hand, places the north at the top (Lelewel, Atlas, pi. 22).

+ Isid. Ong. xiii. 1, § 7 ; iEthicus, cap. 18.

t Est ergo locus amcenissimus lougo terrse marisque tractu a nostra habitahili
regione segregatus ; sic excelsus ut usque ad lunarem globum attingat unde et
aquae diluvii ad locum hunc non pervenerunt.

TEEEESTEIAL PAEADISE. xxi

Fathers (Augustine, Basil, and Ambrose) as to the continued existence
of Paradise; but the authority on which mediaeval cartographers
chiefly leant was Isidore, whose statement* as to the fiery wall is
portrayed in the Hereford map. Authorities were not wholly agi-eed
as to the position of Paradise, but the prevailing opinion was in favour
of the extreme east. In a small sketch-map of Brunetto Latini it is
placed in the north ; and according to another theoiy it lay beyond
the torrid zone, and was thus inaccessible to man {Ot. Imp. i. 10).
The four rivers oT Paradise were identified with the Euphrates, Tigris,
Nile, and Ganges of true geography ; and the difficulty as to the
widely remote sources of these rivers was solved by assuming that the
rivers on leaving Paradise were submerged and reappeared at those
points. Cosmas, who placed Paradise beyond the Ocean, adopted
the theory that the rivers retained independent courses under the
sea. The belief in the Terrestrial Paradise and its rivers held its
ground until dissipated by the progress of discovery. Columbus him-
self was not free from the delusion, and when he encountered the
flood of the river Orinoco in the Gulf of Paria, he thought that
it could be none other than the fount of Paradise (Irving's Life of
Columbus, book x. cap. 4). For further particulars on this subject we
refer our readers to a note in the appendix to the work just quoted,
and also to Baring Gould's Curious Myths, pp. 250-266.

§ 10. The general arrangement of a mediaeval map, as described
in the foregoing paragraphs, was evidently inconsistent with geographi-
cal truth, inasmuch as it furnished the cartographer with no means of
ascertaining the true position of places on the map, or of correctly
delineating the directions of natural objects, such as seas, mountains,
and rivers. He was bound by conventional rules to a certain mode of
dealing with the space at his command, these rules being quite inde-
pendent of any foundation in geographical facts. We do not of course
mean to imply that there is any impropriety in drawing a circular map
of a hemisphere with Jerusalem for its centre, or, as it would be
technically expressed, "on the plane of the horizon" of Jerusalem.
The specific fault in the mediaeval map was that it made Jerusalem
the centre of the habitable world — that it consequently fixed the form
and the limits of that world — and that it forced lands and seas into

* " Septus est undique romphsea flamma, id est, muro igneo aocinotus, ita ut
ejus cum ccelo pene jungatur incendium" {Orig. xiv. 3, § 3). And so Gervase of
Tilbury, " Inadibilis homini'bus quia igneo muro usque ad coelum oiuctus" {Ot.
Imip. ii. 3).

xxii INTEODUCTION.

spaces that were not adapted to their true form or size. The use of
parallels and meridians was absolutely incompatible with such a system
of map-drawing. Hence the " chaos of error and confusion " which
characterises medieeval maps. Hence the distortion of outlines, and
the gross displacement of towns and countries. The radical defect in
the method vitiated the whole treatment of the subject, and compelled
map-makers to rely on precedent rather than on the data supplied by
reliable authorities. Possibly, indeed, they did not aim at geographical
so much as at historical representation. A map was an " estoire " (to
borrow the expression used by the author of the Hereford map) i.e., an
illustrated * record, and its oflBce was more to delineate objects of popular
interest than objects of scientific value. The taste of the age ran in
favour of the marvellous, t and the mappa mundi was to a considerable
extent addressed to the illustration of this department of literature.
Let any one compare the Hereford map with the Eomanoe of King
Alexander, and he cannot fail to see the close resemblance in the spirit,
and even in the special features, of the two documents. In short, a
mediaeval mappa mundi, to be duly appreciated, must to a great extent
be regarded as an illustrated romance. This predilection for the
marvellous is exhibited in the natural history of a mediaeval map.
Our readers will hereafter observe how large a portion of the Hereford
map is occupied with descriptions of human monstrosities, mythical
animals, birds and beasts of strange aspect, famous lakes and wells,
and plants of noteworthy properties. If it be asked what gave rise to
these various fancies, we must attribute a certain proportion of them
to spurious etymology. The tales were evolved out of the names and
their supposed meanings. Thus the legend of the men with four eyes
arose, as Pliny himself perceived, out of the name Nisytos (H. N. vi.
194). Thus, again, our Isle of Thanet rose to a world-wide celebrity
through the derivation of the name from the Greek word thanatos,
"death:" whence was evolved the story that its soil was fatal to
serpents (Isidore, Orig. xiv. 6, § 3 ; Solinus 22, § 8). Nor was the

' The modem French applies the expression "historier" in the same sense,
" enjoliver cle clivers petits omements." — Littr6's Diet.

t Mr. Cooley aptly illustrates tMs point by quoting the regulations made by
William of Wiokham for the students of New Coll., Oxford : — " When in the winter,
on the occasion of any holiday, a fire is lighted for the fellows in the great hall,
the fellows and scholars may, after their dinner or their supper, amuse themselves
in a suitable manner with singing or reciting poetry, or with the chronicles of
different kingdoms and the wonders of the world." — Afnritime and Inland Dis-
eovery, Bk. iii. cap. 2.

CONTENTS OF MEDIEVAL MAPS. xxiii

effect of spurious etymology confined to such matters as this : the
idea that the island Canaria was occupied by huge dogs originated in
etymological error ; and we may draw attention to a peculiar feature
in the Hereford map connected with Oardia, a town on the Thracian
Chersonese, which is represented as occupying a heart-shaped peninsula,
the name being derived from the Greek Icardia " heart " (Solin. 10,
§20).

§ 11. Passing on to the materials with which mediaeval maps were
usually filled, we may classify the entries under the foUowing heads : —
(1) Biblical; (2) Classical; (3) Legendary; (4) Contemporaneous.

1. Biblical. — In addition to the representation of Paradise and its
four rivers, already noticed, the leading events of Old Testament history
were duly commemorated : — the Ark resting on the mountains of
Ararat ; the Tower of Babel ; the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah ;
the sojourn in Egypt, of which the Pyramids were regarded as a
memorial, their ordinary designation being "Joseph's Bams;" the
passage of the Eed Sea; the wanderings in the Desert; and the
partition of the Promised Land among the twelve tribes. The above
subjects supplied matter for pictorial representation. Due promi-
nence was also given to places associated with the events of the New
Testament — Bethlehem, Nazareth, Samaria, and, above all, Jerusalem.
The countries in which the Apostles preached are also occasionally
noticed. We have yet to notice a Biblical subject which took its place
in the legendary lore of the middle ages as an existing fact of most
serious import : we allude to the belief that the Gog and Magog of
prophecy were stOl existing, and only restrained from overwhelming
other nations by an immense barrier thrown up by Alexander the
Great, who thrust them back to the shores of the Northern Ocean, and
there by divine interposition closed them up in a peninsula, whence
in the latter days they should burst forth to carry desolation and rapine
throughout the fairest regions of Christendom. The anticipation of
this dread event overshadowed Western Europe in the 13th century to
such a degree, that even so enlightened a man as Koger Bacon recom-
mends the study of geography with a view to ascertain the time when,
and the quarter whence, the outbreak should come (Op. Maj. p. 142).
The words of Ezekiel xxxix. 2, coupled with Rev. xx. 8, supplied the
Scriptural basis for this theory. jEthicus (Hieronymus) was the
leading authority among the Latins for the details connected with the
interposition of Alexander the Great (caps. 32, 39). The same ideas
were, liowever, widely spread among the Orientals, as we may gather

xxiv INTEODUCTION.

both from the notices in the Koran (xviii. 93 ; xxi. 96), and from the
letter reputed to have been sent by Prester John to the Emperor
Manuel Commenus (1143-1180), in which the incarcerated nations are
enumerated by name (Baring-Gould Curious Myths, p. 40). The
vividness of the belief is illustrated by the fact that an eastern Khalif,
living in the early part of the 9th century, sent out an expedition to
discover the ramparts of Gog and Magog ; the result of which is
recorded by the Arabian geographer Edrisi (D'Anville Hist. Acad. Iiv-
script. xxvi. 210-220, Wharton, Hist. Engl. Poetry ; Dissert. 1, p. 14,
note e). From these circumstances, Gog and Magog, with the enclosing
rampart, became a stock subject among mediaeval cartographers.

2. Classiml. — To this head we may refer the bulk of the names
which occur in mediaeval maps. The classical geography is not that
of Strabo or Ptolemy, but of Orosius, and the epitomists of Pliny,
such as Solinus and Capella. The political divisions of Asia, Africa,
and Southern Europe, are almost exclusively those of ancient times.
The same may be said of the towns. Classical nomenclature extends
even into Gaul and the British Isles, side by side with more modem
designations. The names of mountain-ranges and rivers are naturally
given in their classical garb, as Latin was still the language of litera-
ture. The spots of special fame in classical literature live again in
mediaeval maps. Troy and Carthage vie in importance with Eome
and Jerusalem. The Labyrinth of Crete, the Colossus of Khodes, the
Pillars of Hercules, the Oracles of Delphi and Ammon, Calypso —
these are among the objects on which the attention fastened, apparently
as though they were still existing. With this predilection for classical
subjects, it is difficult to comprehend the astounding ignorance and
carelessness of mediaeval cartographers. The delineation of Greece
and the arrangement of its localities in the Hereford map are beyond
all conception. Delphi is confounded with Delos ; Thermopylae is an
inland range ; and Corinth stands wholly away from any symptom of
its isthmus ! So again in other quarters — Patmos is transported into
the Black Sea ; Gades is represented as a large island in the middle
of the Straits of Gibraltar ; Calpe and Abyla change places, the former
being transported to Africa ; the Syrtes are apparently placed inland ;
the Paotolus flows into the Euxine,- and so forth. In one important
particular the mediseval cartographer may be absolved from blame in
respect to his erroneous representation. In most maps the Western
Nile forms a conspicuous object. The idea to which these give
expression is, that the mysterious river rose in Western Africa, near

CONTENTS OF MEDIEVAL MAPS. xxv

the ocean, and in a course broken by more than one subsidence,
traversed the whole breadth of the continent, finally emerging as the
Nile of Egypt. This is the view entertained by Orosius, i. 2, and
Solinus, 32, § 2, both of whom in this matter follow Pliny, v. 51-53,
in his report of Juba's explorations in Central Africa. It was not the
first time that such an opinion had been entertained. Herodotus
had heard of a great river in this quarter, which he surmised to be
the upper course of the Nile (ii. 33). The Latin geographers were
probably not aware that Ptolemy, and after him the Arabs, enter-
tained more correct views as to the sources of the Nile. Marino
Sanuto (1320) is the only one (as far as we know) of the Latin
cartographers, who distinguishes the Nile from the river of Central
Africa.

3. Legendary. — The legendary or mythical geography of the middle
ages was partly derived from classical sources, and was partly of con-
temporaneous origin. To the former head we may refer the monstrosi-
ties in human form which were supposed to tenant the remote regions
of the earth, particularly the interior of Africa, such as the men with
four eyes, the men witb no proper mouths, the seiapodes who used
their single foot as an umbrella, etc., etc. The belief in the existence
of such creatures was justified by St. Augustine (De Civ. Dei, xvi. 8),
and was hence generally accepted in the Christian church. The geo-
graphical treatises of the middle ages, such as the Imago Mundi, give
descriptions of these deformities, borrowed from Solinus and Pliny, and
the Alexandrian Eomance contributed largely to popularise the belief
by associating them with the achievements of Alexander the Great. To
this latter source we may attribute various other particulars of a later
date connected with the life of Alexander, such as the legend of the
Trees of the Sun and Moon, introduced into the " Psalter " map and
the Rudimentum Novitiorum map of the lith century (Santarem, iii.
239) ; and the parallel legend of the Dry Tree, introduced into the
Hereford map, and into that of Bianco, 1436 (Santarem, iii. 380).
Passing on to the myths of purely mediaeval origin, we may notice
that in more than one instance they were productive of good, inas-
much as they furnished incitements to geographical discovery. This
was particularly the case with the beautiful legend of St. Brandan,
which we shaU have occasion to notice in connection with the For-
tunatse Insulse in the Hereford map. Suffice it here to say that
St. Brandan was an Irish Monk of the 6th century, who undertook a
voyage in search of the terrestrial Paradise, and after many adven-

xxvi INTRODUCTION.

tures found an island that corresponded in beauty and fertility with
the pictures which the imagination drew of Paradise. The tale of
his voyage became very popular in the 12th and following centuries,
and no doubt was entertained as to the existence of such an island,
appearing occasionally as a bright phantom in the distant horizon, but
ever eluding the search of the mariner. Several expeditions were
sent out by the Portuguese for the express purpose of discovering its
position, and even so late as 1755 the name of the island is entered
on a chart to the westward of Ferro. Whether the fancied glimpses
of the island were the effect of pure imagination, or whether they
arose from the natural phenomenon called the Fata Morgana, it is im-
possible to decide. It may be surmised, however, that spurious
etymology may have been at the bottom of the delusion ; one of the
Fortunate Islands was known by the name Aprositus, and this, inter-
preted as a Greek word, would mean the " unapproachable." * (For
further particulars we refer our readers to Irving's Columbus, Append.
No. XXV.) Just as the legend of St. Brandan led to maritime ex-
ploration in the Western Ocean, so did the mystery that gathered
round Prester John rouse an interest in respect to Central Asia.
The first rumour of Prester John dates from the middle of the 12th
century, when he was mentioned by the Bishop of Gabala. It is now
tolerably well ascertained that the potentate referred to was the
founder of the Kara Khitai empire, whose official title of Gurkhan
may have been so pronounced as to be mistaken for the Greek form
of the name John. The Prester John of the later half of the 12th
century, of whom Eubruquis and Marco Polo speak, was another
Kerait chief, whose proper name was Ung Khan (Yule's Marco Polo,
i. 206, ffi). The cartographical notices of Prester John date from
the early part of the 14th century. In the larger " Polychronicon "
map, his empire is placed in lower Scythia, within the limits of
Europe, but in the map of Marino Sanuto, in further India, which
accords better with the historical notices. By a strange freak its
locale was subsequently transferred from Central Asia to Abyssinia,
where it is duly placed in the Borgia map (cire. 1400), in Bianco's
(1436), and in Leardo's (1448); the map in the Pitti Palace at
Florence (1417) being the only one of this period which retains him

* To this part of the legend reference is made in the following passage from
the 0(ia Imperialia, ii. 11 : — " Cunotis gratissima sed paucis nota, quae aliquando
casu inventa, postea diu quaesita, non est reperta, ideoque dicitur perdita. Ad
hanc tradunt Brandinum, virum sanctum, Oceani exploratorem, tandem devenisse."

coisrTEisrTS or medieval maps. xx^a

in his old quarters (Santarem, iii. 10, 195, 295, 333, 390, 436). We
have finally to notice the legend of the Seven Sleepers, which appears
in the Hereford map, and the legend of St. Patrick's Purgatory, which
appears in the larger " Polychronicon " map ; neither of these, how-
ever, exercised much influence on geographical study.

4. Contemporaneous. — From what has been already said, it may
be inferred that the amount of contemporaneous geography in
mediaeval maps comes within a small compass. In this respect,
cartography did not keep pace with the age. The various historical
annals, and even the geographical treatises, contrast favourably with
maps in regard to accuracy and range of knowledge. Taking the
Hereford map as a sample, we find in the whole of Asia only a
solitary indication of advancement, in the use of the modern form
Samarcand for the ancient Maracanda. In Africa not a single new
name occurs. In the Mediterranean, the modern Palermo, instead of
the ancient Panormus, is the only noticeable feature. In Europe
there is naturally some advance. We meet with names unknown in
ancient geography — the Eussians, Hungarians, Danes, Norway, the
territorial subdivisions of France and Germany, the names of German
towns on the Weser and the Elbe, and of places of ecclesiastical or
political note, such as Compostella, in Spain, Mont St. Michel, in
France, Martinsberg (Sabarria), in Hungary, Gran, in the same
country, Augsburg, Prague, and others ; together with a fair
sprinkling of names in the British Isles. But the omissions are
striking. There is nothing to indicate any acquaintance with the
commercial routes of the Venetians and Genoese ; nor yet with those
of the Hanse towns, which had nevertheless attained to great power
in the middle of the 1 3th century j nor, again, do we meet names
specifically attributable to the Crusaders. It is almost as difficult to
account for the insertion of some names as it is for the 'omission of
others ; and the general impression conveyed to our minds is one of
inaccuracy, carelessness, and ignorance. We have said that maps did
did not keep pace with treatises, and we might support this by a
comparison of the Hereford map with the somewhat earlier work of
Koger Bacon, in whose Opus Majus we find mention of Damietta,
Cairo (Kayr), the Volga (EthUia), Bagdad (Baldac), Turkey (Turkia),
Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, Prussia, Tartars, Cathay, Prester John
(pp. 151, 157, 168, 169, 170, 173), not to speak of many modern
names of ancient places. The discoveries of Kubruquis, which were
familiar to Bacon, are very imperfectly indicated in the maps of the

xxviii - INTEODUCTION.

14th century. The true character of the Caspian Sea is first given
in Marino Sanuto's map (1320), and in the same map we have
notices of Cathay (Ghrna), and of the great Khan under the quaint
title of Mag%%s Ganis. Similar entries also occur in the Chronieon
map of the same date (Santarem iii. 151, 152). Bagdad first appears
{we believe) in the Borgia map, and Cairo in Leardo's map (Santarem
iii. 282, 388).

§ 12. A brief account of the sources whence mediaeval carto-
graphers drew their materials may not be unacceptable to oiu:
readers. We are able to discover these sources, partly from the
statements of the cartographers themselves, and partly from the
evidence furnished by the names and legends. A list of authorities
which Higden professes to have used in the composition of his Poly-
chronicon supplies some interesting information as to the literary
appliances of the 14th century for historical and geogralphical studies.
On the latter subject the authorities most in vogue were the follow-
ing, which we have arranged in chronological order :■ —

Pliny, a.d. 23-79. — The Historia Natiiralis of this author is the
mine whence perhaps two-thirds of mediaeval geography has been
either directly or indirectly derived. The original was not consulted
so much as the compilations of Solinus, Marcian Capella, and others.
We need give no description of a work so well known to scholars, and
which falls within the domain of classical rather than mediaeval
literature.

PoMPONius Mela, a native of Spain, contemporaneous with Pliny,
and the author of a treatise entitled De Situ Orbis, the earliest work
in Latin literature devoted exclusively to geography. In this (i. 1.)
we find the first notice of the opinion, which afterwards became so
prevalent, as to an impassable zone intervening between our world and
the " alter orbis " of the Antichthons in the temperate zone of the
southern hemisphere.

Antonini Itineeaeium. This work owes its designation to
Antoninus Caracalla, in whose reign (a.d. 198-217) it was originally
compiled, though it evidently underwent revisions down to the time of
Diocletian (292-305). Its value as a topographical description of the
Eoman Empire is incalculable. The authorship has been attributed
to Julius Honorius, and others, but on no evidence. It may rather
be regarded as an ofScial document, drawn up by various hands.
In the middle ages copies of the Itinerary were bound up with the
Cosmographia of jEthicus, under the title of "-(Ethicus cum Itinerariis

AUTHOEITIES FOR MEDIEVAL GEOGEAPHY. xxix

suis." There is an excellent critical edition of this work by Parthey
and Finder (Berlin, 1848).

SoLlNUS, the author of a work entitled Collectanea Berum Memora-
bilium. Of his personal history nothing is known ; but he probably
lived about the middle of the third century after Christ. The title of
his work sufficiently bespeaks its contents. It is a description of the
most noteworthy places and objects in the world, compUed chiefly from
Pliny, but in part also from Mela, and methodically arranged in
geographical order. No work was more popular in the middle ages.
Mommsen's edition (Berlin, 1864,) is serviceable for critical purposes.

Oeosius, the author of a historical work entitled Historiarum adr-
versus Paganos libri VII., but more commonly known as the Ormista,
which probably originated in the abbreviation. Or. m. ist,, for Orosii
mundi historia. Orosius was a native of Spain, and flourished in the
early part of the fifth century. He was personally acquainted with
Augustine and Jerome, and he wrote his history in the interests of
Christianity, to disprove the assertion that the miseries under which
the world then suffered were peculiar to that age, and consequently the
result (as the Pagans alleged) of the Christian religion. He devotes
the second chapter of his first book to a geographical description of
the world. The popularity of the work in the middle ages is attested
by the fact that King Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. The
geographical chapter forms part of the Oosmographia ^thici, and wag
widely studied. The Cambridge " Imago Mundi " map, and the Here-
ford map, illustrate his views, the latter expressly stating as much.

Macrobitjs, " the grammarian," a writer of the early part of the
fifth century, one of whose works, entitled Commentarius ex Cicerone
in Somnium Scipionis, consists of a treatise on cosmology, which was
largely studied in the middle ages, and which contributed much to
establish the view that the torrid zone was impassable.

Priscian, the famous grammarian, who flourished about the middle
of the 5th century, the author of a Latin translation of the Periegesis
of Dionysius, which was used as a geographical text-book for school-
boys in the middle ages. The date of Dionysius himself is uncertain,
some placing him in the first century after Christ, others as late as
the 4th century. The poem is written in hexameter verses, and
contains a description of the world as then known. Both the
original work and Priscian's translation will be found in MuUer's
Oeog. Gn-mci Min., vol. ii.

Maeoianus Capella, a native of Carthage, who flourished pro-

XXX INTEODUCTION.

bably towards the close of the 5th century, the author of an encyclo-
psedic work in nine books, of which the sixth, nominally devoted to
geometry, contains an abstract of geography. The work was largely
used in the middle ages.

IsiDOKUs, sumamed Hispalensis {i. e. of Seville), to distinguish
him from others of the same name, Bishop of Seville from 600 to his
death in 636 — a man of vast erudition for the age in which he lived.
He left behind him a large number of works, the most important of
which is an encyclopaedic compilation entitled Originum sive Etymologi-
arum lihri XX., of which the fourteenth contains a description of the
world, with sundry etymological notices.

jEthici Oosmogeaphia. — Two wholly distinct works pass under
this title, and the questions connected with their origin and contents
have given rise to a large amount of erudite discussion, which has not
resulted in unanimity. One of these works has been long familiar to
the learned : it consists of two treatises, the first of which, entitled
" Expositio," is identical with the Excerpta JuUi Honorii, while the
other, entitled Alia totius orhis descriptio, is identical vsdth the geo-
graphical chapter in the work of Orosius, to which we have already
referred. Julius Honorius, the orator, may be identified with Julius
the orator, of whom Oassiodorus makes mention in Div. Led. c. 25, as
having written a geographical work answering to the description of the
one before us. In this case he must have lived before the close of the
5 th century after Christ. His manual describes the world according
to its quaAripartita continentia, the materials being arranged on the
principle of a fourfold division, corresponding to the four oceans. It
consists of a diy list of names of seas, mountains, rivers, towns, &c.,
the rivers alone being described at any length. The second treatise
"Alia descriptio " adopts the mode of description according to its
tripartita continentia, the three continents being made the basis of the
arrangement. Whether ^Ethicus was the true name of the compilei-
of the Gosmographia, remains uncertain : nothing, at aU events, is known
of his history. We pass on to the other work, entitled " Mthici
Istrici Gosmographia" This professes to be a record of the travels of
a " philosopher " named iEthious, a native of Istria, whose own work,
written in the Greek language, is non-existent, but of which a
breviarium or abstract was made in Latin by one Hieronymus, who is
entitled a " presbyter." One of the questions that has arisen concerns
this abbreviator — whether he is to be identified with St. Jerome 1 If
so, the treatise must at all events have been in existence at the end of

AUTHORITIES FOR MEDIEVAL GEOGRAPHY, xxxi

the 4th century of our era. It has indeed been argued, from internal
evidence, that the travels took place towards the end of the 3rd century.
The identification of Hieronymus with St. Jerome is, however, open to
much doubt ; and there are those who regard the whole treatise as a
mediseval compiLation dating from the 8th century, to which period
existing manuscripts carry us back. To give even a rlsum$ of the
arguments pro and con would carry us far beyond our limits. We
must refer those interested in the question to the elaborate disquisitions
of Pertz (De Cosm. Ethici., Berlin, 1853), Wuttke (Die Kosm. des Istrici
Aithicos, Leipzig, 1854), and D'Avezac (MSm. Acad, des Inscr., Paris,
1852), or to the more concise Epilogue on the subject in Lelewel's
Geograpliie, vol. iv. The treatise was much studied in the middle
ages, and is several times quoted by Eoger Bacon in his Opus Majus.
The author of the Hereford map quotes jEthicus by name in regard to
the isle Sirtinice, and also borrows largely from him in his description
of the peoples of northern Asia.

In addition to the above we add, for the sake of completeness,
notices of two geographical writers whose works do not appear to have
been much known to mediaeval writers, — viz., Oosmas, and the anony-
mous Kavenna geographer.

CosMAS, surnamed " Indico-pleustes," from his fame as a navigator
of the seas connected with the Indian Ocean, was an Egyptian monk of
the early part of the 6th century. He composed a work entitled
Topographia Christiana, the object of which was to overthrow the re-
ceived opinion as to the spherical form of the earth, and to prove that
it was really a flat plain of rectangular shape, with a length from E. to
W. twice as great as its breadth from K to S., and surrounded by the
ocean, beyond which lay the Terrestrial Paradise and the lands which
the antediluvian population had occupied. His work contains some
geographical information, amid a large amount of useless matter. The
treatise has been published by Montfaucon in his Collect. Nova Patnim,

vol. ii.

Geogeaphus Eavennas. The writer described as the Kavenna
Geographer (his work being anonymous), was a so-called " philosopher "
of the 7th century, residing at Eavenna. His manual contains lists
of names, with occasional notes interspersed, and with a general preface,
describing the circuit of the world according to the position of the sun
at each hour of the day and night. It is confusedly drawn up, and
abounds with errors both of geography and orthography. His cosmo-
graphical views appear in part to have resembled those of Oosmas,

xxxii INTEODUCTION.

for he thought the ocean was bounded on its outer rim by lofty
mountains. He differed however from Cosmas in regard to the
position of the Terrestrial Paradise, which he believed to be in the
extreme east, beyond India, from which it was separated by a vast
desert. There is a modern edition of this work by Parthey and
Finder (Berlin, 1860).

§ 13. The geographical treatises of the middle ages are little
else than r^chauff^s of the works enumerated in the foregoing section.
Geography was treated as a branch of cosmology, and it is rarely
that we meet with any work devoted expressly to descriptive geography.
The following authors and works may be cited in connection with
the history of geography in our own country : —

Beda (672-735), whose cosmologioal views are expressed in the
treatises, De mundi ccelestis terraeqiie constitutione, and De elementis
Philosophias.

DiCTJiL, an Irish monk, in the early part of the 9th century, author
of a manual entitled D& Mensura Orbis TerrcB, chiefly compiled from
Pliny, but containing some contemporaneous information as to Sjrria,
Egypt, and Iceland.

Imago Mundi, a treatise composed in the 12th century, and
generally attributed to Honorius of Autun, but also to Anselm of
Canterbury, with whose works it is printed (Cologne, 1573), and
again to Henry of Huntingdon. In the copy belonging to C. C. C,
Cambridge, the authorship is claimed by one Henry, a canon of
Maintz. No work was more popular in the middle ages. A
rythmical version of it in French, by Gautier of Metz (1245), was
largely used. The geographical information is comprised in caps. 8-20
of Book i.

The Alexandrian Eomance, a poem which enjoyed great popu-
larity throughout Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries, based upon
the work of the pseudo-Callisthenes, which made its appearance
towards the close of the 4th century. The romance appears to have
assumed its present form in Persia, whence it was introduced into
Europe by means of a translation made by a Greek of Constantinople
in 1070. A Latin version is noticed by Gfraldus Cambrensis.
About 1200 a French version appeared, of which there is a splendid
copy in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. The English version was made
from the French. It is given in Weber's Metrical Romances, vol. i.

KoGBE Bacon (1214-1292), a man far in advance of his age in
geography as in other matters. In his Opus Majus, he classes

MEDIEVAL GEOGEAPHICAL WEITEES. xxxiii

geography under mathematics, and gives a tolerably full description of
the world, extending from p. 134 to p. 177 of Jebb's edition (Venice,
1750).

Geevase of Tilbury, a monk of the 13th century, author of the
Otia Imperialia, a work addressed to Otho IV., Emperor of Ger-
many, with whom Gervase stood in such high favour that he was
appointed Marshal of the kingdom of Aries (Biocf. Brit. Liter., ii. 285).
His work consists of three parts {Decisiones), of which the second con-
tains a geographical sketch in caps. 2-12, and 21-23. This work
wiU be found in Leibnitzii Script. Ber. Brims, i. 881-1004 (Hanover,
1710).

Eaiph Higden (died 1363), a monk of Chester, author of the
Polychronicon, the first book of which (caps. 5-34) contains a tolerably
full description of the world.

Vv''e may further mention the following writers as illustrating in
various ways the subjects of mediaeval geography : —

Pauius Diaconus, the latter part of the 8th century, who gives
a description of Italy in his work De Gestis Langobardorum, which
may be found in Muratori's Ital. Ber. Script, vol. i.

Rabanus Maxtetts, 9th century, the author of an encyclopaedic
work, De Universo, composed at Maintz, in 22 books, of which the
eleventh and two following bear upon geography.

Adam of Bremen, 11th century, whose treatise De Situ Daniae
is our chief authority for the geography of northern Europe. It may
be found in Lindenborg's Script. Ber. Germ. Septentr. (Frankfurt,
1630).

Maeino Sanuto, 14th century, the author of the Seereta Fidelium
Crucis, to which is appended a brief geographical mianual, Ulustrative
of his map. It may be found in Bongarsius's Gesta Dei per Francos
(Hanover, 1611).

The illustrated Natural History of mediaeval maps — a department
in which the Hereford map is particularly rich — was probably derived
from the Bestiaeia and Heebaeia of that period. Several of these
works survive in our public libraries, and are interesting for their
spirited and frequently very exact delineations of animals and plants.
The descriptions are founded (as the references of the authors show)
on the treatise of an unknown writer of great antiquity, cited under
the name of Physiologus, to whom reference is made by Chaucer
[Cant. Tales, 15,277). Whether this is a generic term for "natural-

xxxiv INTEODUCTION.

ist," or whether it indicates any particular person, is uncertain.
Some authorities are disposed to identify " Physiologus " with Chry-
sostom, others with Origen. Specimens of Bestiaries are published in
the splendid work of MM. Oahier and Martin, Melanges d' ArcUologie,
vol. ii. Bestiaries were occasionally composed in modern languages ;
a French poem on this subject, by Philippe de Thoun, may be found
in Wright's Mediceval Popular Science, and an English Bestiary in the
Early Text Society's series, 1872, edited by Mr. Morris.

§ 14. Our concluding section will be devoted to an enumeration
of the mediaeval Mappce Mundi existing in this country, together with
rough notes on their character and contents, designed partly to Ulus-
trate the bearing of these maps on the composition of the Hereford
map, and partly to assist persons in the inspection of the maps them-
selves. It wUl be seen that England is comparatively rich in art-
treasures of this nature ; she possesses certainly some of the most
interesting maps yet known, such as the Hereford map, the Anglo-
Saxon map, the Cambridge " Imago Mundi " map, the beautiful
miniature " Psalter " map, and the larger " Polychronicon " map.
We place them as nearly as possible in their chronological order.

1 . Anglo-Saxon map of the 10th century, prefixed to a copy of Priscian's
Periegesis, in the Library of the British Museum. (Cotton MS.
Tib. B. V.)

This highly interesting map is 84 inches long and 7 inches hroad, and of
rectangular shape. Jerusalem stands considerably away from the centre of the
map towards the south, in consequence of the Mediterranean Sea expanding in
that dii'ection. In the B. Taprobane (Ceylon) occupies the place usually assigned
to the terrestrial Paradise, at the head of the map ; at the opposite point, in the
W., stand Gades and the Pillars of Hercules. The ocean is more varied in its
outline than is usual in mediseval maps ; it is for the most part coloured gvey,
but the Eastern (Indian) Ocean with the Persian Gulf and the Eed Sea are painted
red, in conformity with the ancient name, Eryilwmum Mare. The Nile is drawn
in three section,?, the highest named Dora, terminatiug in a submergence "hie
arenis mergitur," the middle and longer section rising in a lake and having a
similar termination, and the lower section representing the Nile of Egypt. Names
are not always affixed to the objects delineated. This is particularly the case
with the mountain ranges and rivers of 'Europe, with regard to which it may be said
that the few names that do occur are (with the exception of Tanais flmi. and the
Monies Riphei) a source of pei-plexity, the others being Yparur, probably intended
for the Hypanis (Boug), DanuUus fluvius, which is assigned not to the Danube,
but to a, river more in the position of the Hebrus, and Barciminacius assigned
to a river in Spain. The pictorial illustrations consist of a spirited picture of a lion
in the N.E. of Asia, with the legend Hie abundant Uones ; Mons Aureus, the

MEDIEVAL MAPS. xxxv

" golden mouutam,'' where the pigmies fought with the cranes for the precious
metal ; the Ark (Area Noe) resting on the mountains of Armenia ; the Pillars of
Hercules, and the following towns : In Asia — Babylon, Cesarea Philippi, Vociisa
civitas near the Black Sea, Tharso Cilicie (Tarsus), Sierusalem, a town near the
Nile with a name which reads like Gertie, and Alexandria in Egypt, which was
included in Asia. In Africa — Cartago Magna, and another town unnamed. In
Europe — Roma, Salerna, Luna, Taca (? Luca), Padua (the name is also read
Pavia), Ravenna, Oonstantinopolis. In Britain — Lundona and Wintona ; and in
Ireland a town with an undecipherable name, probably intended for Armagh.

The majority of the names entered can be readily recognised as belonging
either to Biblical or classical geography. The folloiiring points are worthy of notice
as characteristic of medissval geography : — " Gog et Magog," to the west of the
Caspian Sea, which is represented as a gulf of the Northern Ocean ; Turchi, ad-
jacent to Gog and Magog ; Gryphorum gens ; Bulgari, between the Danube and
the Northern Ocean; " Dacia ubi et Gothia" for Denmark, the name Daci being
commonly used for Dani ; (?) Sclavi (the name is read Selacii) ; together "with some
names in Northern Europe which are peculiar to this map, viz. : — (?) Slesne (per-
haps intended for Saxony), Nerocorren (in the position of Norway), and Sud
hryttas (" South Britons ") for Brittany. Iceland is also introduced under the
name Island. Hungary is described as Eunnorum gens. We may further notice
the volcano in Africa, near the top of the map, " Hie dieitur esse mons semper ar-
dens; " the Cinocephales, " dog-headed " men, in the S.W. of Africa (in the Hereford
map they are placed in Northern Europe) ; and Mmis Mespenis, near the ocean.

Many of the inscriptions are diEBcidt to decipher. For the assistance of those
who have the opportunity of referring to the original map, or to the copies of it
in the atlases of Jomard, Santarem, and Lelewel, or again to the description of it
by Santarem (ii. 47—76), we make the following suggestions — The inscription on
Taprobane should be read " habet X eimtates ; Ms in anno messes (Santarem reads
" mense ") etfruges. The name near the Persian Gulf we suspect to be Eudemon
(i.e. Arabia Felix), as in the Hereford map, and not " Cademoci." Mons Fasga
probably means Pisgah. " Voeusa civitas," near the Black Sea, reminds us of
"Decusa civitas" in the Imago Mundi and Hereford maps. For "Mocipia" we
read Jsauria. The entries near the head of the map Mons Farthan, Bilon
fluvius, and Nilluit we cannot explain ; the second applies to the Ganges, and may
be intended for " Pison ; " nor can we account for the entry " PentapoUs,^' with
the adjacent " C'ertie," near the Nile, nor yet for the name " Philefica" (perhaps
" PhiUstia ") in the same quarter. The inscription in Africa, near Carthage, should
be read by the light of Isidore, Orig. xiv. 5, § 8 : — " Zeugis regio ipsa est et (vera)
Africa .... sed nlteriora bestiis et serpentibus plena," though we can-
not make out the whole of these words on the map : Santarem reads " Fruges
regionis ipsas et Africanorum fores leo abripit bellum serpentibus plena." In the
same part of the map we suggest Musita, as in the Hereford map, as the name of
the river near Carthage, southward of the middle Nile ; " Eic oberrant Gangines
JSthiopes," as in Orosius, instead of "Hie aberrant Hesperides ..Ethiopes," as in
Santarem ; and in the same quarter " Mons Climax," for his " Mons Denax," in ac-
cordance with the statement of Oros. i. 2 ; and for "Calcarsum," which Santarem
cannot identify, Calearsxt-s, the lake mentioned by Orosius as on the border of Asia
and Africa. We cannot decipher the inscription in the W. of Africa, near the ocean,

xxxvi INTRODUCTION".

tut we suspect it refers to Atlas (not "Caiiles," as Sautarem reads it), and that
it alludes to the legend told by Solinus, 24, § 10 " Silet per diem," etc. A little
higher up is an inscription taken from Orosius " Gentes Aulolum contingentes (or
perhaps " pervagantes ") usque ad Ooeanum.'' In Europe the name Napersiha,
near the Euxine, is puzzling ; there is an undecipherable inscription on Iceland,
and a name on Britain, " March pergus," "which we cannot explain.

2. A map of the 12th century in a MS. (No. xvii.) dated 1110,

in the Library of St. John's Coll., Oxford.

This is a circular map, with a diameter of about 6^ inches. It is of a very
imperfect character, and exhibits wonderful mistakes ; but it has its peculiar
features, which entitle it to notice. It is constructed on the principle of the T
in the O (see p. xv.) ; and the centrality of Jerusalem is conspicuously displayed
by inscribing Hierusalem in large letters on the horizontal line of the T. But
the cartographer did not apparently regard the upright line as indicating the
division between Europe and Africa ; for he has drawn the name Europe on both
sides of the line, and has relegated Africa to the lower comer of the map. The
terrestrial Paradise does not appear. The entries of names are scanty, and these
mostly Biblical. The distribution of the human race among the sons of Noah is
indicated in the following inscriptions, the number 72 being substituted for the
70 of the Mosaic table, as in the Otia Imp. of Gervase of Tilbury, ii. 1 : — " Quod
(? quo sc. Asia Major) sunt septuaginta due gente arte." " De Sem xxvii." " De
Jafeth XV. " ' 'De Cham gentes xxx. " Armenia, with Noah's ark, is transposed to
the south of Asia. Achaia (in the position of India), Csesarea, Ephesus, and
Athens, are noticed in connection with the labours of St. Andrew, St. Peter, St.
John, and St. Paul respectively. ' ' Cimtas refugii " is an entry peculiar to this
map. The only names that occur in Europe are Terra Macedonie, Campania,
Moma, Italia, Tuscia (Tuscany), TiMs (Tiberis) fl., Mons Ethna, Sicilia, and
Kartago Magna, whether in mistake for Carthago Nova we cannot say. Con-
staniinopoUs is placed in Asia. Britannia, Eihernia, and TMile, appear in the far
north.

3. A map of the 12th century, in the Library of Corpus Christi CoU.,

Cambridge, in a MS. (No. lxvi.) containing the Imago Mundi,
and some historical tracts, by Henry, a Canon of Maintz.
This map has a special interest for us in consequence of the remarkable ooui-
cidences between it and the Hereford map. The authorship ;of the work is
claimed in the prologue by Henry, a Canon of the Cathedral Church of Mamtz,
who dedicates it to the Emperor Henry V., 1106-1125, the husband of Matilda,
daughter of Henry I. of England, and gives as the date of his work the year in
which the mamage of the Emperor took place, — 1110. We are unable to discover
any clue as to who this Canon of Maintz may have been. There is no doubt,
however, that the MS. was written by an English hand, probably one of the Dur-
ham ecclesiastics, and that it was owned by an English monastery, for at the head
of the map we read " Liber Sancte Marie de Salleia " — the Latinised form of
Sawley, in Craven, Yorkshire (Dugdale, Monasticon, v. 510), From the character
of the handwriting the MS. would be assigned to the latter part of the 12th

MEDIEVAL MAPS. xxxvii

century, — say 1180. Whether the Canon of Maintz intended to claim the author-
ship of the treatise "Imago Mundi," or simply the general composition of the
whole work (his words are "hunc librum edit"), is more than we are able to say.
It has been already mentioned that tlieimag'O Mundi is assigned most commonly
to Honorius, but also to Anselm and Henry of Huntingdon.

The map is of oval form, 9 inches long by 7^ broad, the spandrels between
the curves and the. angles of the page being occupied by figures of angels. The
execution of the map is very good — the outlines varied and firmly drawn, and the
writing, though small, particularly neat and legible. The pictorial illustrations
are not numerous. The ocean forms a surrounding belt, with a very varied out-
line in the north of Europe and Asia : and herein lies one of the most marked
coincidences between this and the Hereford map, particularly as regards the posi-
tion and the outline of the Baltic Sea, the Scandinavian peninsula, the country of
the Cinocephales, the peninsula of the Hyperboreans, the Caspian Sea, the penin-
sula of Gog and Magog, and the further coast-line to Paradise ; together with the
islands adjacent to these coasts, viz. Taraoonta, Rapharrica, the two islands Bizse
and Crisolida (which are drawn, but not named), Abalcia, and Tylos. So again,
southward of Paradise, the position and outline of the Persian Gulf and Red Sea,
with the island Ceylon between them. In short, the whole outline of the world,
including the British Isles and the adjacent portions of Europe, is precisely the
same in the two maps.

The Mediterranean Sea forms, as usual, the most conspicuous object in the
map. The peninsular form of Italy is more developed in this than in the Hereford
map ; but there is the same widening of the sea at its eastern extremity, the same
projecting horns to represent the angles of the Levant, the same elongation of the
Black Sea and the Sea of Azov (Mare Cimmerium), and the same approximation
of it to the Northern Ocean.

The Nile presents another object of comparison. The author of the Cambridge
map adopts the theory of the Western Nile, which we have already noticed in the
Anglo-Saxon map, and draws it in three sections, — a short one, springing from a
lake (Nitidis Locus) near the Atlantic ; then a long stretch commencing with a
large lake {Lacus Maximus), and nmning parallel to the Southern Ocean to a
second point of submergence (Hie mergitur) ; and, lastly, the Nile of Egypt, spring-
ing from a fount, Fiatus fons Niti, near the Red Sea, penetrating the Monies Nibim,
and flowing to a S. W. direction to the Mediterranean. The exact correspondence
of the Hereford map in these respects, extending in some cases to the inscriptions,
e.g. " Fialus fons Nili, " is very noteworthy. But there is one featiire which is,
as far as we know, strictly peciiliar to these two maps, namely, the introduction
of the lake and river of Triton as an affluent of the middle section of the Nile,
fiowtng in a S.W. direction from the neighbourhood to which the Arce PhUenorum
are transported. There is in this respect a community of error in the two maps,
possibly due to the mistake in reference to the position of the Arte Philenorum,
which ought to have been placed on the Mediterranean Sea, and which were not so
very far remote from a river of Triton flowing into that sea.

In the delineation of the mountain chain, the author of the Cambridge map
has followed Orosius in drawing a long chain of mountains in the interior of
Africa. These form a conspicuous featm-e in the Hereford map, and are there
named Euzaree Montes. These are followed, more E., by the Monies Ethiopie.

xxxviii IlSrTRODUCTION.

Mount Atlas (Mons Athlas) is represented "by a height near the Atlantic, and
further S. is Mons Hesperus, which formed the promontory Hesperium Cornu, or
Hesperuceras, on the Atlantic coast. We may further advert to the following
features : — The range in the B. of Asia, answering to the Osco and Caucasus of
the Hereford map, the mountam-helt girding Bactria, the position of the Caspise
Portse, and the line of mountains in Syria, including Lebanon, — in all which the
two maps are in accordance.

The rivers of Asia form another peculiar feature. Proceeding eastward from
the Persian Gulf we meet with the Indus, the Eydaspes, the Acesines, and the
Hypanis, the three last being in reality rivers of the Punjab, which ought to
join the Indus, hut which are represented as quite independent of it. Then, on
the other side of Paradise, towards the N., comes the Ganges, flowing in a due
easterly direction, and then, in order, the Oetogorra, the Acheron, the Oxus, flow-
ing into the Caspian, and two rivers, not named, on the western side of that sea.
In these respects there is a close correspondence with the Hereford map, as also
in the mode of depicting the Jordan as made up of two streams, named Jor and
Dan; and again in the wonderful blunder of making the Pactolus run into the
Euxine. The Euphrates and Tigris are duly entered, together with a river join-
ing their upper courses, named the Cdba, perhaps intended for the Chaboras or
Chebar.

The boundary between Asia and Africa is fixed at a range W. of the Nile,
where we read the inscription Terminus Asie et Afnce. The range is named
Caiabaihmus, which is thus transferred from the coast of Marmarica to the inte-
rior. The range is not named In the Hereford map, but it is represented, and
with a similar inscription, referring to the boundary of the continents. The limit
between Asia and Europe is not specified, and in this omission the Hereford map
is in accordance.

We further draw attention to these additional coincidences : In Asia — Enos, a
town just outside the gate of Paradise ; the Aurei Monies, already noticed in the
Anglo-Saxon map ; Cotonare Portus, on the Indian Ocean ; Alons Sephar, also on
the Indian Ocean, near the Persian Gulf ; the towns Pages, JVisa, Camite
(?Lamit!e, as in Hereford map, "principes Persidis"); Gog et Magog gens im-
munda; gens Hyperhorea, sine morio et discordia; Apteroplion (the Pterophoron
of Solinus, XV. § 20), foUowed by an undecipherable inscription, in which the
word " Rifei " may be detected, in reference to its position " sub Eiphieis mon-
tibus," as in the Hereford map ; hie habitant Griff e homines neguissimi ; Oynoce-
phales, adjacent to the Northern Ocean ; Amazonia; Caspie Porte; Rinocorwra, on
the border of Egypt ; Mons Ardens, in the E. angle of Africa, as in the Anglo-
Saxon map ; Monies Nibie, in the course of the Nile, which is represented as pass-
ing through the Porte Nibie; Mero'e insula, depicted as a complete island between
two arms of the Nile ; Canopus, depicted as an island, and Mene, placed opposite
the mouth of the Nile, as described in Imago Munfii ; the Trogodite, near the
Middle Nile ; the river Lethon, in Cyrenaica, introduced in consequence of the
effects attributed to its waters of producing forgetfulness ; Ippone Regius, the see
of St. Augustine ; and Septem Montes (as in A. S. map), to which an undue im-
portance was attached by medieval geographers. In Europe — Gallacus and Danus,
tributaries of the Bbro, the former answering to the Gallego, the latter a pecu-
liar name, unknown in ancient geography; Auxona fl., in the position of the

MEDIEVAL MAPS. xxxix

Somme, or perhaps of the Schelde, but the name is that of the Aisne, a tributary
of the Seine ; Mare Venetum, the upper part of the Adriatic ; Cardia, introduced
on pseudo-etymological grounds, as exhibited in the Hereford map, its site being
shaped like a heart; Retia Major and Minor, the classical divisions being E.
Prima and Secunda ; Saharria S. Martini [i. e. ' ' Sabarria, the birthplace of St.
Martin"); Dacia et Russia; Sarmathce,'ia the position of Bohemia, or perhaps
Hungary ; Sinus Germaniens, (Baltic Sea) ; Saxonia (Saxony) ; Terminus Banc-
rum et Saxonmn, in the same position as in the Hereford map; and Noreya
(Norway).

Islands. — Britannia and Sibernia, drawn, but not named, the latter elongated
towards Spain, in accordance with Orosius's desoi'iption ; the Orcades, also un-
named ; (?) Island (Iceland) ; Ganzmu, near Norway, a very peculiar name, for
which we cannot account ; in the Hereford map it is placed in Norway itself as a
mountain; Terraconta, Rapharrica, and Abalcia, three islands mentioned in
.^hicus ; Tylos, near Paradise; and Tapbana {= Taprobane or Ceylon), near
the Persian Gulf. In the Mediterranean, Cqnopus and Mene, already noticed,
and Pathmos, placed by itself at the head of the arm of the sea near Syria, as
though to indicate the completeness of the banishment to which St. John was
condemned.

The following objects are pictorially figured ; and here, again, the coincidences
with the Hereford map are striking : — In Africa, the basilisk, as a bird seated in
the angle between the Triton and the Nile ; Arse Philenorum as three artificial
altars in the interior of Africa, though they were really sandhills on the shore of
the Mediterranean ; the temple of Jupiter Ammon as a, building of horse-shoe
form ; the Monasteries of St. Antonine in the Ethiopian desert, near the subsidence
of the middle Nile ; the Pyramids as a bam-like structure, in strict accordance
with their mediseval designation, " Horrea Josephi ; " and the pepper forest
(" Siha Piperis "), near the Eed Sea. In Asia, the rampart closing the peninsula,
to which Gog and Magog were relegated, consisting of a wall and altars. In
Europe, the church of Santiago in Spain, and connected with it a roughly drawn
Pharos, evidently intended for the Perona {SI Padron) of the Hereford map.

We have a few indications of contemporaneous geography in this map, such as
Roem, as an abbreviated form of Eotomagum (Eouen), Parisiis, and Pictavis, in
France ; in Germany, Saxonia, Sa/xones, Frisones, and Magontia (Maintz), which,
oddly enough, is transported from the Ehine to the Moselle ; in Scandinavia,
Noreya ; and Pisa in Italy.

The map is described by Santarem in an appendix to vol. iii. pp. 463-498.
Some of his readings admit of emendation, probably from the circumstance that
he worked! from a copy and not from the original. We suggest Tuscia for
"Fosca;" Bruttii, for"Brucis;" S. Martini, for "Sojaram," the words to be
attached to Sabarria, which by the way we identify with Martinsberg, rather than
with Stein-am-Anger ; Mosella, for "Bassel;" Crisoroas, for "Emsoruas;"
Cotonare, for "Conconare;" Sephar, for "Schig;'' Msa,foT "TJsa;" Oamite,
for "Chayrce; " Deserta, for "Slyota ;" Tednus (= Cydnus), for "Temus;"
Antiochia,ioT " Ania. ;" Ardens, for"Aroeni;" hicmergitur, for "hicnigritia;''
Perchenissa ( ? = Proconnesus), for " Polsemilsei ; " and Oanamu, for
" Ganimur."

xl INTEODUCTION".

4. Map of the 12th century, in a MS. in the British Museum (Add.
No. 11,695), containing a commentary on the Apocalypse.

This map -was executed in Spain, and differs in many material points from the
other maps entered on our list. In the printed catalogue of the British Museum
it is stated that it exhibits the ideas of the Arabian geographers. In what
respects it does so we are unable to explain ; the style of illustration and the
general execution of the map are undoubtedly peculiar : but we do not perceive
in the geographical features anything that seems to us distinctively Arabian. The
map is of nearly rectangular form, the angles being rounded off : its length from
N. to S. is 18 inches ; and its breadth 15 inches. The east is placed at the
head. Jerusalem is considerably E. of the centre. Paradise, with the figures of
Adam and Eve, is drawn on a larger scale than usual. The Mediterranean is
represented by an upright band, containing islands, and from its upper end an ann
projects at right angles to the northern ocean, to form a division between Asia and
Europe. A second arm diverges from this, in its mid course, towards the W., thus
forming a kind of island or peninsula, in which stand the inscriptions " Monies
Mifei," and Gotia unde GoUi. The Nile rises near Atlas, and flows in a con-
tinuous stream to the Mediterranean, which it reaches by a sharp curve in its
lower course. The Mare Rubrum is distinguished from the Southern Ocean, and
is represented as a belt lying under the torrid zone, and forming a separation
between our world and that of the Antichthons, on which is inscribed Desertwm
terra mcina soli ah a/rdore incognitum nobis.

The map is described by Santarem (ii. 107-126.) The entries of names are
comparatively few, and belong almost exclusively to ancient geography. The
names of the mountains are in some cases peculiar, e.g. Mons Aguilo in N.E. Asia;
Mons Sauceranus in eastern Asia ; duo Alpes contrarii sibi in Western Africa,
whether intended for the Pillars of Hercules, we cannot say : " Alpes " is clearly
used as a generic term for mountains, as in the ease of Alpes Galliarum. With
the exception of the Nile, no rivers are entered ; we doubt Sautarem's reading of
a name in Spain as iatended for " Fluvius Italicus : " it looks more like laimus.
The names Spania and Olisihona (Lisbon) are noticeable : so also the mention of
the Bosphorani (Bisforiani), perhaps borrowed from the Ravenna geographer;
Tantutos (the Isle of Thanet) ; and the notice of the Phcenix (hie abee fenix) in
Arabia.

5, 6. Two maps of the middle of the 13th century, in MSS. of the
" Flores Historiarum " of Matthew Paris ; one of them in the
British Museum (MSS. Cotton, Nero, D. v.), the other in the
Library of Corpus Ohristi OoU., Cambridge.

These two maps are very similar to each other, but not (we believe) absolutely
identical. They are roughly drawn, of quadrangular shape, 14 laches long by 94
broad, the same size as the leaf of the MS., the edge of which represents the line
of the ocean. The most interesting feature in these maps is the inscription, to
which we have already made reference (p. xviii.), in coimection with the shape of
mediaeval maps, and which brings to light the circumstance that there was a map

MEDIEVAL MAPS. xli

publicly exhibited (as we may suppose) in the King's Exchequer at Westminster.
It further records the existence of three other maps, which have perished, viz. : —
the map of Eobert of Melkely, the map of Waltham Abbey, and the map of
Matthew Paris. The Latin of the inscription is somewhat obscure, but we hope
we are right iu supposing that the map before us is not the one which is referred
to as "in ordine Matthaei de Parisio." The concluding sentences are foimded, as
already stated, on a passage in Macrobius. The inscription runs thus : — " Sum-
matim facta est dispositio Mappa Mundi Magistri Eob. de Melkeleia et Mappa
Mundi de Waltham. Mappa Mundi domini regis quod est In camera sua apud
Westmonasterium flguratur in ordine Matthei de Parisio. Verissimum autem
figuratur in eodem ordine quod est quasi clamis extensa. Talis est scena nostre
partis habitabilis secundum pHlosophos scilicet quarta pars terre qui est
triangularis fere : corpus autem terre sperioum est."

' In the delineation of physical features, the chief peculiarity is the broad arm
which projects westward from the Euxine Sea, and which seems intended for the
Danube. The Palus Mseotis is singularly represented by two lakes, entitled Meotis
PaZudes inferiores, near the Northern Ocean, iato which they discharge their
surplus waters by a river. Numerous rivers are entered in Europe, but the only
names that occur are Rodanus (Rhone), Danuhiws, assigned to a river flowing into
the Atlantic, and Aple, probably intended for the Albis or Elbe. The various por-
tions of the Mediterranean are named, viz. : — Mare Tyrrhenv/m; M. Adriaticwm,
assigned to what we should be disposed to regard as the Ionian Sea ; M. Vene-
torwm, at the head of the Adriatic ; and M. Grecmn (the JSgaan).

The maps contain numerous entries that savour of contemporaneous geography,
such as Mwmgaria Major and Bungaria Minor, Polonia (Poland), Austria, Saseoniat
Bavaria, Theutonia, Thmmgia, Alemania, Francia, FUmd/ria, Burgundda,
Brittannia (Britanny), Normannia, Braiantia and Braibe (duplicate entries for
Brabant), Hollandia twice over, Dacia (Denmark), and Suesoia (Sweden), together
with the towns Cokmia (Cologne), Janua (Genoa), Bisa, Venetia, Bononia
(Bologna), and Mediolanvm (Milan). Two names in Northern Europe, one of
which, between Braibe and HoUandia, reads like Swen, the other between Bra-
bantia and Suescia, like Iplandia or Splandia, we cannot explain.

We may further notice Gades Herculis, written partly in Europe and partly
in Africa — Gades being here used as eqidvalent to Coliunnse ; Pontos insula uM
Ovidius exul, represented as an island in the Euxine, the true spot of the poet's
exile being Tomi in Mcesia ; Arimaspi et Qryphes, in the extreme N., the former
being the one-eyed people commemorated by Herodotus, iv. 27, as contending
with the griffins for gold ; CoUhbs, represented as an island in the Euxine ; Path-
mos, in" a horn of the Mediterranean ; and JerapoUs (Hierapolis), with the notice
Hie predicamt PMippus Apostolus, that being the reputed place of his later
labours, and of his burial. The map is described by Santarem, ii. 254-272.

7. A map of the 13th century, in a Psalter in the Library of the
British Museum (MS. No. 6806).

This map is remarkable for its artistic execution. From the character of the
handwriting it may be assigned to the latter part of the 13th century. It is of a
circular form, vrith a diameter of about 3^ inches. Its existence does not appear

xlii INTEODUCTION.

to have teen known to the Continental geographers, as we find no notice of it
either m gantarem's or Jomard's works : for this reason it has heen selected as
the frontispiece of the present essay. The illnistrations of the map deserve special
notice. Above the map there is a half figure of our Saviour, with two angek in
the act of incensing him ; helow it are two dragons facing each other. On the
reverse of the page the Saviour again appears ahove the circle, and his feet are
represented below the circle, placed on the necks of the dragons, and crushing
them to the ground. A border surrounds the page, which, in point of design, is
almost identical with that of the Hereford map ; and another very remarkable
point of resemblance in the two maps is the introduction of a belt of illustrations
in the southern part of Africa, depicting the peculiar races of that region, among
them the two figures of the men with their eyes in their breasts and in their
shoulders. These figures should be examined by the aid of a magnifying glass.

The ocean is represented as a belt of equal breadth surrounding the eatth.
In a concentric band outside the ocean the various winds are introduced ; each
being represented by a head, as in the Hereford map. The titles of the winds, from
Paradise roimd by the north, are — Subsolanus, VuUwr, Aquilo, Septentrio, Circms,
Chorus, Zephyrus, Africanus (Africus), Libonothus, Auster vel Nothius, JEwrono-
thus, and (?) Ewrus (this last being illegible). The Mediterranean presents the
same general form as in the maps already described, with a considerable expansion
on the side of Asia, and the same two horns to represent the eastern projection
between Asia Minor and Egypt. The Euxine is brought, as usual, too close to
the Northern Ocean. The Adriatic is fairly represented. Paradise occupies the
post of honour at the extreme east, and exhibits the peculiarity of five rivers
issuing from it, the author having entered the Ganges as well as the Pison.
Within the inclosure of Paradise are the portraits of Adam and Eve, separated by
an object which looks like a stem of a tree, the device on the summit being,
however, not sufllciently distinct to be identified. Can this be intended for the
Arbre Sec, as described in the legend quoted by Col. Yule {Marco Polo, ii. 397) : —
" In the midst of Paradise he beheld a glorious fountain, from which flowed forth
four rivers .... and over the fountain rose a Great Tree, with vast roots, but
bare of bark and leaves." Two belts form somewhat conspicuous objects on the
map, — one in Northern Asia, inclosing the region about the Caspian, and probably
designed to signify the district where Gog and Magog were confined ; the other in
Western Africa, which bears the inscription Terra Arenosa et sterilis, and is in-
tended for the desert which inclosed Mauritania and Numidia on the S.

The mountains and rivers introduced are as follows : In Asia — the Tigris,
which flows direct from Paradise to the Indian Ocean ; the Euphrates, which
enters a chain of mountains W. of Paradise, apparently named M. Orcatoten, and,
emerging thence, flows to the Persian Gulf ; Eral or Mtal, a river rising in Arme-
nia, and flowing into the Northern Ocean, probably intended for the Ethel or Volga ;
Montes Riphei, on the border of Europe ; the Jordan, made up of the two branches
Jor and Dan, and flowing through the Stannum (= Stagnum) Gennosar (= Gen-
nesareth) Tiberiadis, into the Mare Mortuum ; Mons lAbanus ; and a river called
Hiner, flowing into the jEgsean Sea. In Africa — the Nile (Nilus flumen), of
which the Egyptian section alone, with its seven mouths, is given, perhaps be-
cause that part of the map in which its western section lay was occupied by the
illustrations already noticed ; a chain of mountains, the Monies Nibie of the

MEDIEVAL MAPS. xliii

Hereford map, crossing the upper Nile ; two islands inclosed in the Nile, Meroe,
and that on which Bahylonia was supposed to stand, as in the Hereford map ; and
Mons Atlas, near the Atlantic Ocean. In Europe — Moris Suevus, as in the Here-
ford map, where it stands near the Baltic ; the Danube (Danuiius), with several afflu-
ents ; the Rhine, drawn but not named ; and so also the Don, on the frontier of Asia.

The entries of names which belong more especially to the province of mediaeval
geography are as follows : In Asia — Arbor Solis and Arbor Lunce, the Trees of
the Sun and Moon, outside Paradise, towards the S. [This entry is deserving of
special notice : the Hereford map notices the Tree of the Sim under the title
"Arbor balsami est arbor sicca," the latter title being another name for the Tree
of the Sun ; but the Tree of the Moon is unmentioned. The two trees, with the
title Oraculum solis et lune, appear in a map of the 12th century. (Brit.Mus.
Add. MS., No. 10,049.) The trees again appear in the map of Lambertus, but
without the titles (Santarem, ii. p. 189). The larger map of Higden probably
indicates their existence by the inscription " Arbores conserti quibus locutus est
Alexander," and the same entry occurs in the Borgia map (Santarem iii. 282).
There is an interesting note on this subject by Layard in the appendix to
Santarem's 3d. vol.] Arce Idberi et colinue (? columnae) Herculis in the
position of the "Ara3 Alexandri" of the Hereford map, near the Indus, such
altars being attributed both to Bacchus and Alexander (Solln. 49, § 4) ; Pcdi-
bothra, a town of India, near Patna ; Albania Superior and Inferior, in N.B. of
Asia (compare the Albanorum Eegio of the Anglo-Saxon map), the country being
Introduced on accoimt of the supposed origin of the name ; Amazones hie manent,
in the same quarter ; Cyropolis, otherwise caUed Cyreschata, a town on the Jax-
artes in Sogdiana, famous for the siege it sustained from Alexander the Great ; it
is placed near the Caspian Sea ; TheodosiopoUs, a town in Armenia, noticed by
Prooopius and the Ravenna geographer, but on what account entered in this map
we cannot divine ; Mons exeelsus iibi diabolus statuit Dominwm, the mountain on
which the devil tempted our Lord ; Puteus Josephi, the well in which Joseph was
placed by his brethren ; Oalcidonia (Chalcedon), in Asia Minor ; and Are Alex-
andri, near the border of Europe.

In Africa — Orrea Josephi (the Pyramids), below which, and apparently con-
nected with it, is the puzzling ^inscription Presuli duo manent ; Monasterium
Sancti Petri, St. Peter being here substituted for St. Antonine ; Damiete (Dami-
etta), a town well known in connection with the Crusades ; Taphnis, on the west-
em arm of the NOe, the Vulgate form of Tahpanhes (Jer. xliii. 7) ; Oliopolimi
probably Heliopolis ; Polutivm (Pelusium) ; Mathabres, the Natabres of the Here-
ford map ; Zeitgis, as in Hereford map, the name being attributed to a towui
though properly belonging to a province. Islands off Africa — Gorgades, occupied
by Gorgons (Solin. 56, § 10), and (?) Tacoma.

In Europe — Galicia, as " province of Spain ; Eguiiania (Aquitania) ; Nor-
mjannia ; Parisiis ; Achaia ; Constantinopolis ; Sunga/ria ; Sclaveni Occidentales,
a very peculiar entry, the Slaves in question being placed near the Black Sea ;
and Golonia (Cologne). Islands off the coast of Europe — Britannia ; Wallia ;
Hibernia ; Norvegia, (Norway), represented as an island ; Ipborea (? Hyperborei,
who are always represented as in the extreme N. "beyond the north wind," but
generally on the continent, and not on an island) : In the Mediterranean — Calipso,
transfeiTed from the coast of Italy to that of Palestine.

xHv INTEODUCTION.

The foUowing names need no comment : In Asia — Armenia, Eyrcania, Asia
Minor, Ninus (Nineveli), Turris (Babel), Elam (= Persia) in Palestine, Jerusa-
lem, Tcyrrens Gedron, Bethlehem, Aearon, Azotiis, Gesarea, Betheida (? Bethsaida),
Aniioehia, (in Syria), and Lachis, near the last-mentioned town (? Lachish in
Southern Palestine) In Africa — Ethiopia, Egyptus, Memphis, Alexandria (a
second entry which looks like " p-lexandria," may te a duplicate of the one
just mentioned, the p. meaning portm), Berenice, GetuUa, Qa/rama, the capital
of the Garamantes, Are Philenorum, Cartago, ani Mauritania. In Europe — Eis-
pania, G. Nerhona (Gallia Nartonensis), LwgolMnensis, Boma, Macedonia, Greda,
placed N. of Macedonia, Larissa, Dalmatia, Sarmatia, north of the Danube, and
Sitia (Scythia).

The following entries we are unable to identify: In Asia — Lazarmn or Jazarom
to the 1. hand of Paradise ; Segio Con in the same quarter ; Nisapi, near Arbor
Lunse ; Peliopolis (? Persepolis) on Euphrates ; Corotaim, near the Lake of
Tiberias (in the position of Capernaum) ; Spartan, in Northern Asia, W. of
Hyrcania. In Africa — Saltabri, on the NUe, opposite to Babylonia. In Europe
— Unizonia (? Aragonia) in Spain ; Synaria or Eyngaria (? Sabaria), apparently
on the Drave ; Euscito, between Mens Suevus and the Black Sea ; Oleiis, placed
between two affluents of the Danube ; Ala, si town on a branch of the Rhine ;
Saxronia or Lutonia, a town N. of Cologne ; a name on a peninsula of the Northern
Ocean, perhaps intended for Dacia (Denmark) ; Ar-uni-phor (? Apterophon) an
island off the Amazonian country, in Asia ; and Ahairair (? Abalcia) opposite
Hyrcania.

At the back of the map there is a brief manual of geography, perhaps ia-
tended as a key to the map, with the names of the provinces and some of the
towns. The contents of each continent occupy the same space as the continent
itself on the map, the upper half being devoted to Asia. As frequently happens, the
manual does not altogether accord with the map. We find in it, for instance, the
names Wasconia (Gascony), Pictavia, Neustria, Francia, Allemannia, Saxonia,
Goiia, Wadelia (? Vandalia) and Bulgaria, none of which appear in the map.
The name Spartan, which we have |not been able to identify, is mentioned as a
city of Hyrcania, and the curious name Jazarom, or, as it reads in the manual,
Thazarom, is given as a city of India, together with Sagasla, which is also un-
known to us.

8. Three maps of the 13th century (cire. 1280) m a copy of Bnmetto
Lattini, Lime du Tresor, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. (MS.
Douce, No. 319.)

Two of these maps occur in the table of contents, and are small circular sketch-
maps, about two inches in diameter, one illustrating the cardiaal points and divi-
sions of the world, with the inscriptions Oriant, Septentrion, Occident, Midi,
Aisse la grant (Asia Major), Europe, and Aufrig ; while the other illustrates the
position of the ten'estrial Paradise, which is represented as a quadrangular in-
closure beyond the ocean, on the north side of the world, with the inscriptions
Paradis Terrestre, Septentrion, Oriant, and Occident. The third map is in the
body of the work, circular, with a diameter of 7 inches, with the south at the

MEDIEVAL MAPS. xlv

head of the map. No names are entered on it. The Mediterranean Sea is depicted
with a remarkahle degree of accuracy. The execution of the map is very good,
and the colours are very vivid.

9.-16. Maps of the 14th century, in copies ot Kigden's Polychronicon ;
three in the British Museum (Old Eoyal Library MSS. 14, c. ix.
and xii.) ; and the others in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh,
and the Libraries of Corpus Christi CoU., Cambridge, Corpus
Christi Coll., Oxford, and Winchester CoU.

One of these maps stands out from the rest In regard both to size and amount
of geographical matter. It is contained in the first MS. above mentioned, and la
of oval form, with diameters of 1 foot 6 inches and 1 foot 14 inch ; it is described
at length by Santarem (ill. 1-60). Of the smaller maps, one is drawn on the back
of this larger one ; it is of oval form, 11 inches by 84 inches, and is also described
by Santarem (iii. 60-81). A second may be found in the other copy of the
Polychronioou (14, c. xii.) ; this is of an ovoid form, resembling the Vesica Piscis,
about the same size as the other, and is described by Santarem (iii. 82-94). A
third, belonging to the Advocates' Library, is of oval form, and is somewhat
smaller than the one of similar shape in the British Museum. The examples at
C. C. C, Cambridge, and C. C. C, Oxford, are also oval, and the one at Winchester
College is ovoid.

The larger map resembles the Hereford map in respect to the number of legends
(according to Santarem, 11. Inir. p. liii, they amount to 90), introduced into it ;
but the execution of the map is very inferior, and the writing is difficult to read,
at all events for a novice at such work. The entries of special interest are those
which refer to the Tartars, in connection with Scythia Inferior and Armenia ; Prester
John as king of the Tartars ; Christianity in Abyssinia (gens Arabea Mhiops) ;
the Saracens in Spain, and the legend of St. Patrick's Purgatory. A few fresh
names are introduced from contemporaneous geography — Hanaldia (Hainault),
Selandia (Zealand), Prussia, Franconia, Westphalia, and Thwringia. Norway
and Sweden are represented by islands (Norwegia and Suedia), as also Denmark
(Dacia), and, according to Santarem, Jutland, which he identifies with the Wittland
of the map ; but (?) is not this rather the Witland of King Alfred's Orosius, or if
not Witland (which is placed E. of the Vistula, where Samland now stands),
Weonothland, which Forster identifies with Fiinen ( Voyages in the North, p. 70) ?

In other respects the geography is as antiquated as ever. The Caspian Sea is
still represented as an arm of the Northern Ocean. The rivers of Paradise still
reappear as the Nile, the Ganges, etc. The Amazons, the one-eyed Cyclopes, and
aU the other deformities, are commemorated. Isidore and Solinus stUl hold their
place as the leading authorities in geography. The inscriptions are for the most
part correctly transcribed by Santarem, but the one with regard to Wales, which
Santarem reads as "WaUia de religione quiis Eomanorum," should rather be
Wallia de religuiis Trojanorum, referring to the legend of Brutus.

The smaller maps contain, generally speaking, the same names as the larger
one but the legends are omitted. The maps vary very much ia character, but there
is a strong family likeness in them. None of them will compare in point of execu-

xlvi INTRODUCTION.

tion with the smaU " Psalter " map, or with the Camhridge." Imago Mimdi " map.
It is a peculiarity in them that the Mediterranean Sea is thrown considerably to
the S., Africa being thus contracted in width, and Jerusalem being misplaced re-
latively to the Mediterranean, in the endeavour to preserve its centrality. In the
Winchester map the physical features are not delineated at all. In the Edinburgh
map the line of the Mediterranean Sea is but slightly varied ; in the Oxford map,
on the other hand, it is throughout indented with bays. Elvers and mountains
are occasionally named, but their courses are not depicted.

17. A circular map of the 15th century, m a MS. entitled "Pedi-
gree of the Saxon Kings," in the Library (Arundel, 53) of the
College of Arms, London.

This map, though small (having a diameter of only about 4J inches), and of
little geographical interest, is peculiar for the large amount of pictorial illustra-
tions on its surface. It is subdivided in the usual manner, by a horizontal band
passing through the centre of the circle, and a perpendicular band dropped' from
the centre to the lower curve of the circle. The only names entered are tliose of
the continents — Asia, Affrica, and JEuropa; the two last being transposed! from
their proper positions. Asia is covered with edifices, situated on eminences rising
one above the other. Africa is represented as a land of forests and wild beasts,
among which we may distinguish stags, lions or tigers, and serpents. Europe
resembles Asia in being covered with buildings on eminences. Some of the
buildings in Asia have an ecclesiastical character, and in Europe there is an edifice
crowned with a dome. Below the map there is a picture of the Tower of Babel.

The above list (it must be observed) does not include other than
complete maps of the world. The list might be enlarged by maps of
separate countries, and again by itineraries ; but these hardly come
within the scope of our inquiry. We may mention, however, two
maps, which together are well nigh tantamount to a map of the world,
and which occur in a MS. of the 12th century, being a copy of S.
Hieronymi De Hebraieis Qumstionibus, in the British Museum. (Add.
MS. 10,049.)

OETHOGEAPHY OF HEEEFOED MAP. xlvii

NOTE ON THE OETHOGEAPHY OF THE HEEEFOED

MAP.

Tte following deviations from the standard orthography of the
Latin language may be observed in the Latin MSS. of the thirteenth
century : —

cfor qu, as cotidie /or quotidie.
{/or ph, as Panesii /or Phanesii.
y /or i, as Ysidonis /or Isidorus.
p/br b, as optimiit/or obtinuit.
cb/or h, as michi for mlhi.
e/or 86, as insnle /or instdse.
mp/or m, as dainpnum/or danmum.
tb /or t, as Atblas /or Atlas,
ngn /or gn, as rengnum /or regnum.

The letters c and t are formed so exactly alike that it is impossible
to distinguish which is intended.

CHAPTEE I. jt

General Characteristics of the Hereford Map— Life of its Author, Eicardus de
Belle — Date of the Composition — Sources from which the Materials were
drawn — History of the Map — Its Literary History — Its Dimensions, and
the Materials used in drawing it — Description of the Illustrations sur-
rounding the Map— The Four Quarters of the World— The Tahle of the
Winds — The Inscription " Mors " — The Ocean — The General Arrangement
and chief Divisions of the Map.

The Heeefoed Map may be regarded as a pre-eminently
typical specimen of mediseval cartograpliy, inasmuch as it
combines in itself most of the features which have been
noticed in our prefatory remarks as characteristic of the
maps of that period. In respect of size, indeed, it stands
apart from its class, and is only surpassed by Fra Mauro's
celebrated map, which belongs to the middle of the 15 th
century, and which we should be inclined to describe, not as
a true mediaeval map, but as belonging to the period of transi-
tion immediately preceding the grand discoveries of the
Portuguese. In point of execution, in the amount and the
elaborateness of the pictorial illustrations, and in the orna-
mentation of its framework, the Hereford Map far surpassed
anything that had preceded -it. So also with regard to the
large amount of material — geographical features, and descrip-
tive legends — ^with which its surface is wellnigh covered.
We may also note that in all points which constituted the
orthodoxy of geography in that age, the author proved him-
self a true son of the Church. The rejection of all that
savoured of scientific geography, the circumscribed area of
the habitable world, the centraLity of Jerusalem, the terres-

A

2 AUTHOE OF THE MAP.

trial paradise, the orientation, the servile adherence to anti-
quated geographical treatises, the anachronism of the whole
thing, and the sore lack of all critical and even grammatical
accuracy, these characteristics are displayed to the full iu
the Hereford Map. Viewed in a strictly geographical aspect,
as a representation of the world at the time of its execution,
the map would not repay any one for the time spent in its
study. Viewed, on the other hand, as a literary monument,
on which is registered the position of learning towards the
close of the 13th century, the map will be found worthy of
examination.

The author of the map reveals his name in the Norman-
French* inscription at the left-hand lower angle of the map.

"Eul M cest tstaixz ont
©u ogront on Urroitt ou ijeront
Orient a 3\iesn m titytz

Jic iticfjarti tit llaHringfjam z "Hz iLafforlr egt pite
%i lat fet z compasse
%i ioiz en zz\ li seit tione/'

The general purport of these lines is weU conveyed in the
following translation by the Eev. G. F. Townsend : —

" May all wlio this faire historie,t
Shall either hear, or read, or see,
Pray. to Jesus Christ hi Deity,

* Norman-French was at this period the language of the upper classes in
England. Higden, who died in 1363, complains that they were hrought up
to the use of it from their very cradles, and ohliged to use it in the schools in
construing Latin (Polychronicon, i. 59). Trevisa, the earliest translator of
the Polychronicon, adds a note, to the effect that in his day (1385) the custom
was changed, and that English had taken its place in the schools.

t "Historic" is hardly an adequate rendering of "estoire," which refers
rather to the pictorial illustrations, and is more closely represented hy " story,"
in its old sense, e.g., " storied windows."

LIFE OF DE BELLO. 3

Richard of Haldingliam and Lafford to pity,
That to him for aye be given
The joy and happiness of heaven."

Lafford is the old form of Sleaford, a town in Liacolnshire,
and is still retained as the title of a prebendal stall in
Liacoln Cathedral. Haldingham represents the modern Hold-
ingham, a hamlet in the parish of Sleaford. By the aid of
contemporary documents we are enabled to identify the
" Eichard de Haldingham e de Lafford " of the map with one
"Eicardus* de BeUo," who held the prebend of Lafford for
several years previous to 1283. His name supplies the
only indication (and that not a conclusive one) as to his
birthplace. The editor of Bishop SwinfieMs Household Boll
connects the name with Battle, in Sussex (p. 2 0, note a) — a
derivation which receives a certain amount of confirmation
from the fact that he is designated in the Eoll " Eicardus de
la Batayl," as well as "Eicardus de Bello." Archdeacon
Trollope, on the other hand, connects the name with Belleau,
a village near Alford in Lincolnshire, deeming his early con-
nection with Lincoln Cathedral to be in favour of this view.
The name " De Bello " is not altogether unknown to mediaeval
archaeologists. There was a famous architect of this name,
John de Bello, contemporary with our cartographer, who
erected five of the twelve crosses which marked the resting-
places of Queen Eleanor's body on its passage from Lincoln-
shire to London (Archceologia, xxix. 182). The first historical
notice of Eichard de BeUo represents him as holding the post
of treasurer in Lincoln Cathedral {Harleian MSS., Brit. Mus.,
No. 6954, /o. 30&). The date of this notice is uncertain,
but probably lies between 1250 and 1260. We find him
stni retaining this post, which constituted him one of the

* It was" by no means unusual in the 13th century for a person to pass by
more than one name (Lower, Family Nome-mlature, p. 34).

4 LIFE OF DE BELLO.

greater officers of the cathedral, in 1276 {Harleian MSS.
6950, /o. 118; Le Neve Fasti Ecdes. Anglic, ii. 88). At
tliis latter period he was also prebendary of Lafford, and in
that capacity we find him presenting Henricus de Swinderhy
to the vicarage of Lafford. The connection between the
parish of Lafford and Lincoln Cathedral was of early date,
the manor having been presented by William the Conqueror
to Eemigius, the first Norman bishop of Lincoln. The pre-
bend of Lafford was also probably founded at the same period,
and was endowed with the great tithes of that portion of the
parish in which Holdingham is situated, and which were
exchanged in 1797 for 500 acres of land in the same
quarter. It was for this reason, probably, tliat the carto-
grapher styles himself as " de Haldingham " — a title nowhere
accorded to him in the contemporary ecclesiastical documents,
where he passes as " de Lafford," simply. The vicarage of
Lafford was founded at the time when Eichard de BeUo was
prebendary; and it was in the capacity of patron that he
presented Henry of Swinderby {Harl. MSS., 6950, /o. 956;
Trollope, Sleaford and the Wapentakes of Maxwell, etc., pp.
140, 141). Eichard de Bello's connection with Lincohi
Cathedral appears to have terminated in 1283, when he
resigned his prebend (Le Neve, ii. 160). In 1289 we find
him in attendance on Bishop Swinfield of Hereford, and
evidently on familiar terms with him. Three notices of him
occur in Swinfield! s Household Roll, the first of which records
the present to him of a haunch of venison at Bosbuiy near
Ledbury, where the Bishop was then staying, and the other
two refer to payments made by the steward to his garcio or
menial servant (see entries in the EoU for Nov. 17, 1289,
and Dors. § 33, 35, pp. 20, 161, 158, of Camden Society's
edition). His connection with Hereford Cathedral did not
commence until 1306, when he was appointed to the pre-

DATE OF MAP. 5

bend of Norton (Le Neve, i. 518). In the interval he had
been successively appointed, in 1293, to the rectory of Stoke
Talmage in Oxfordshire {Earl. MSS. 6951, /o. 32), and in
1298 to the prebend of Grantham Australis in Sarmn
Cathedral, from which he was collated within a few months
to another prebend in the same church {Harl. MSS. 6951,
fo. 32, 32&). In 1312 he was promoted to the Arch-
deaconry of Berks, in the diocese of Sarum (Le ISTeve, ii.
633). In 1313 he was deputed, in conjunction with Adam
de Orleton, to represent Bishop Swiafield at a provincial
council held in the chapter-house of St. Paul's Cathedral,
London (Eeg. Swinfield, /. 1865; see Boll, p. 151, Note).
Nothing further is heard of him, and he probably died shortly
after. Evidently he was an ecclesiastic of considerable note,
and a man who had seen something of society. It is sup-
posed that the mounted figure at the right-hand lower corner
of the map is intended for the author himself, as he might
have been seen going out hunting, attended by a forester
fully equipped and holding one or more greyhounds in a
leash. Whether the words "^aSS0 abatit" are addressed
by the rider to the forester, as the attitude of the former
seems to indicate, or whether they had a deeper significance
as a motto, we are unable to decide.

The map was probably drawn before the author resigned
his prebend at Lincoln. The mere circumstance that he
describes himself as " de Haldiugham et Lafford " implies
this. Had he drawn it at Hereford he would surely have
called himseK " de Norton ;" while in the interval between
his resignation of the one and his acceptance of the other
appointment, he would have signed himseK as " Eichard de
BeUo." The map itseK furnishes some presumption in favour
of its having been drawn at Lincoln rather than at Hereford.
Let any one compare the pictorial illustrations of the two

6 DATE OF MAP.

places — Lincoln represented by a magnificent edifice, sur-
mounting by successive stages the elevation on which its
cathedral stands ; Hereford by a meagre and unfinished out-
line — the contrast surely favours the presumption that he
■would not have paid so poor a compliment to Hereford if he
had been living there at the time. Whether the notice of
Clee Hill, alone among the mountains of England, carries
any weight in the argument, we must leave to the judgment
of our readers. On the one hand, it may be said that the
fame of Clee Hill would not, in all probability, have reached
Lincoln in those days ; on the other hand, it seems almost
inconceivable that a person living at Hereford would have
had the audacity to delineate Clee Hill as a mountain of
such imposing dimensions, and ■ still less as containing the
soiuces of the Severn and the Dee. Our notion is, that the
mountain was introduced on purely cartographical grounds,
to fiU up the interval between the Severn and Dee, and thus
to mark the boundary between England and "Wales ; having
done this, the author may have added the name subsequently
to his taking up his abode at Hereford. The character of the
handwriting furnishes a more reliable indication, and we be-
lieve that we are expressing the opinion of competent judges
when we say that the handwriting betokens the period
before rather than after the year 1300.

In fixing the date of the map at about 1275 we are
aware that we contravene the opinion of a distinguished
French savant, who has placed it some forty years later.
M. D'Avezac, in an essay *' devoted to this special point,
relies on historical arguments drawn from certain entries in
the map itself. He points, in the first place, to the inscrip-
tion, "Kexminus Jrancie et BursunUte," which, com-

* Sur la Miqipc/Honde Historiie, etc., a paper read before the Geogi'aphical
Society of Paris in 1861.

DATE OF MAP. 7

mencing near Paris, stretches across the Saone and the Ehone
to the line of the Alps, leaving Lugdunum {Lyons) on the left
hand, and Vienna (Vienne) on the right hand, each at some
distance from the inscription. M. D'Avezac assumes that
the inscription is placed in special reference to these two
towns, and that it is intended to indicate a period when
Lyons had been attached to France, while Vienne still re-
mained outside its limits — thus bringing the date to not
earlier than 1313, and not later than 1349. We regret
that we cannot coincide in this conclusion, for the following
reasons : — (1.) The general character of the map does not
favour the idea that its author was closely interested in
current events, or that he intended to give expression to
these on his map. (2.) The inscription in question covers
so much ground that it is difficult to define the precise
locality to which it refers ; the probability, however, is, that
it refers to a hill on the course of the Saone, intended, perhaps,
for the Cote dJOr. (3.) But further, Lugdunum is strangely
misplaced in the map, and, if transferred to its right position,
would be on the same side of the inscription as Vienne.
(4.) Lastly, if the design of the cartographer had been as
M. D'Avezac assumes, we should have expected to find the
inscription so arranged as to bring Lyons on the same side
as France, and Vienne on the opposite side; the reverse,
however, is the case.

Having arrived at the period 1313-1349, M. D'Avezac
narrows the limit by a reference to the entry " JlatttiriE,"
which he takes to indicate a political separation of Flanders
from France. Such a separation took place temporarily
between 1313 and 1320, and within these limits he selects
1314, that being the year signalised by the march of the King
of France against the Count of Flanders. The whole force,
however, of this argument turns upon the question, whether

8 AUTHOEITIES CITED IN THE MAP.

the entry of Flandria implies political separation. It may
simply be a territorial designation ; and when we find other
provincial names entered where no such separation was im-
plied — e.g. Campania (Champagne) and Anemia (Auvergne),
we hesitate to attribute an exceptional significance to
Flandria.

Though ourselves unconvinced by the very ingenious
argument which M. D'Avezac has adduced, we have deemed
it respectful both to himself and to our readers that his view
should be fully stated, together with our reasons for dissent-
ing from it. We are inclined to assign the map to about
the year 1275; and perhaps if M. D'Avezac had been
supplied with the information which is at our command
respecting the life of De BeUo, he would have arrived at
the same conclusion.

The authorities whence De Bello drew his materials are
in some cases specified on the document itself. They are as
foUows : —

1. Orosius, mentioned in the title of the map, " Descriptio
Orosii de Ormesta Mundi sicut interius ostenditur."

2. SoKnus, cited in the inscriptions referring to the
Ganges, the psittacus, and other objects.

3. Isidore, cited in the description of the monoceros.

4. Marcian Capella, cited in the inscription relating to
the hot region beyond the snowy belt in Eastern Asia.

5. ^thicus, or Ethnicus, cited in reference to the isle
Sirtinice, in the Indian Ocean.

The above authors have been severally noticed in the
Introduction. Even if no express mention had been made
of them, there would have been no difficulty in identifying
them from the internal evidence of the map. We may
succinctly say that Orosius supplied the materials as to the
outline of the world, the position of the Ganges, the course

SOUECES OF IlSrrOEMATIOISr. 9

of the Nile, and the names of several of the mountain ranges
of Asia and Africa. SoKnus supplied the information as to
the mirabilia — the marvels and monstrosities of the remoter
parts of the world. From Isidore come the etymological
entries, the representation of the terrestrial paradise, and a
considerable amount of geographical matter as regards the
political divisions of Asia and Africa. Capella's influence is
more especially noticeable in respect to the islands of the
Mediterranean, ^thicus is the authority (as already noticed)
for the northern regions of the world, as also for the isle
Sirtinice, in the Southern Ocean.

In addition to these, there is internal evidence that the
author of the map applied directly to Pliny for the dimensions
of countries, where such are noticed. This is clear from
several passages, but particularly the one referring to the size
of Gaul, which is derived verbatim from Pliny, iv. 105.

Jithicus, the compiler of the Cosmograpliia, probably
supplied the information as to the survey of the world com-
menced by Julius Cassar, and which forms the subject of
the illustration at the left-hand corner of the map.

Lastly, the influence of Antonini Itinerarium can be
readily detected in regard" to the topography of JSTorthern
Africa.

To these eight works we can trace back the bulk of the
contents of the map. We are unable, indeed, to assert that
our cartographer referred in all cases to the original works.
He may, of course, have borrowed them second-hand from
some of the manuals in vogue at that period. Nor do we
wish to imply that the above were the only original works
on which he relied; he drew the legend as to the seven
sleepers from Paulus Diaconus, De Gestis Langobardorum ;
the description of Constantinople (apparently) from WiUiam
of Malmesbury, Be Gestis Begum; and various topics from

10 HISTORY OF MAP.

the Alexandrian Romance. He further made use, no
doubt, of previously existing maps. The remarkable coin-
cidences between his map and the " Imago Mundi " map
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, have been already
noticed in the Introduction. The coincidences with the
" Psalter " map are also noteworthy, though they refer not
so much to the contents as to the ornamentation of the
work. Lastly, we may assume that he had at hand a
Bestiarium and a Herbarium, whence to obtain the materials
for the Natural History.

The early history of the map is not known. It may be
assumed that its author brought it with bim from Lincoln
about 1289, and either presented it- during his lifetime, or
bequeathed it, to the Cathedral Church of Hereford. It is
supposed to have served at one time as an altar-piece in one
of the chapels, and at another time to have been suspended
in the south choir aisle near Bishop MayoVs monument,
where some old iron clasps seem suited to receive it. There
is also a tradition that during the Civil Wars it was secreted
under the wooden floor of Bishop Audle/s chantry. There
is no improbability in any of these statements, and the last
receives some confirmation from the construction of the floor
of the chantry, which was removed in 1860, and which
seemed to offer facilities for the secretion of articles. The
earliest historical notice of the map with which we are
■ acquainted is by the herald Thomas Dingley, who {cire.
1682) records that he saw the map in the library: "Among
other curiosities in this library are a map of ye world drawn
on vellimi by a monk." (Dingley, Camd. Soc, p. clx.) From
the library it was removed in 1830 to the Treasury
Eoom, and thence, in 1863, to its old position near Bishop
Mayow's monument in the south choir aisle, where it may
now be seen. Considering its age, and the neglect with which

LITEEAEY HISTOEY. 11

it has been treated in past centuries, it is wonderful that the
map should be in so good a state of preservation. The only-
wilful damage done to it consists of a series of scratches over
the edifice which represents Paris, and which might have
been perpetrated by some over-patriotic Briton at a time
when feeling ran high against France. The removal of the
"two doors with guilded and painted letters and figures,"
which Dingley notices, occiirred in comparatively modern
times, but under what circumstances is not known. These
doors are depicted in the title-page of Carter's Ancient
Architecture (1796) ; portions of the old hinges still remain.
In 1855 the map was sent up to the British Museum,
where it was most carefully cleaned and repaired under the
immediate superintendence of the late Sir F. Madden, Keeper
of the MSS. Since that period it has been treated with the
most reverential care. A sheet of plate-glass was placed over
it ta 1863, and new folding-doors in 1868 ; nor has it sus-
tained the least damage from the frequent examinations it has
undergone ra connection with the present undertaking.

The last topic of a preliminary character on which we
have to touch, is the literary history of the map. We shall
presently detail what has been done in our own country.
Meanwhile, let it suffice to say that down to the present
time no attempt has been made in this country either to
reproduce the entire map, or to give an adequate description
of its contents. It is with a feeling of deep humiliation
that we have to acknowledge ourselves forestalled in both
these departments by foreign geographers. The map itself
has been reproduced in its full dimensions by Jomard in his
magnificent mediaeval atlas {Monumens de la Giographie.
Paris, 1855); and a tolerably complete description of it is
given in the second volume of Santarem's Gosmograpliie et
Cartographic du Moyen-Age, pp. 288-434; Paris, 1850.

12 LITEEAEY HISTOEY.

Valuable as these works are, they are not altogether satis-
factory. We believe that both Jomard and Santarem
laboured under the disadvantage of never having seen the
map itself They worked from the copy made for the
Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris, which was itself not taken
directly from the map, but from the copy made for the London
Geographical Society. These copies are confessedly im-
perfect, and the imperfections affect the published works.
To 'this we must add that Jomard's fac-simile is broken up
into six sheets, so that it cannot be seen as a whole ; that it
is not coloured ; and, lastly, that his atlas is so bulky and
expensive as to be inaccessible to the majority of our readers.
Santarem's work is of great value as a general manual of
mediaeval cartography; but he frequently fails in his ex-
position of geographical details, apparently because he lacked
either the time or the patience for the needful research,
Nor does he appear to have always succeeded in identifying
the sources whence the cartographers drew their materials.
To a certain extent the present commentary labours under
the same defects ; but, at all events, we trust that we have
made a step in advance of our predecessors. Next to San-
tarem we must mention another continental savant, Lelewel,
as having given a general description of the map and its
contents in his Giographie du Moyen Age, 4 vols., Brussels,
1852 (vol. iv. pp. 141, 161); this, however, is so meagre
as to require no further notice. M. D'Avezac's essay on the
date of the map has been already fully discussed .(pp. 6-8).
"We may complete our list of continental comments by
stating, on the authority of Santarem, ii. 295, that Laborde
gives a fac-simile of that portion of the map which contains
Palestine and Arabia in his Examen Giographigue de I'Exode,
1841; and that Hommaire de HeUe has a notice of the
map in his Steppes de la Mer Caspienne, iii. 352, 1844. In

SIZE OF MAP. 13

our own country we have to notice (1) the description of the
British Isles, with a copy of that portion of the map which
relates to them, in Gough's British Topography, 1780; (2)
a fac-simile of the same portion of the map drawn by Mr. B.
Tucker, and accompanied with twelve pages of letterpress by
Mr. Saxe Bannister, dealing with the general subject of
mediaeval geography, the whole being entitled Brief Descrip-
tion of the Hereford Map, 1849; (3) an essay by Mr. T.
Wright (N^o. XIII. of his Essays on Archceological Subjects,
1861), also dealing rather with the general subject of
mediaeval geography than with the Hereford Map in par-
ticular, though some description of it is given in pp. 15-17 ;
and, lastly, a more complete and particular account than any
of the above, by Mr. Havergal in his Fctsti Serefordenses,
pp. 160-170. The copy of the map in the possession of
the Geographical Society was made in 1831 by Mr. T.
Ballard. A complete photograph was made in 1869, but
many portions of this are very indistinct.

The map is drawn on a remarkably iine sheet of vellum,
6 5 inches by 5 3, which must originally' have been some-
what larger, inasmuch as its edges have evidently been
pared. The material is still in a thoroughly sound con-
dition, the chief defect being a series of small holes in a line
at the base of the upper compartment, which probably arose
from the map having been at some period folded up at that
point. The vellum is stretched over a framework of oak,
square at the bottom and pointed at the top, the angle being
surmounted by a bold crocketed canopy, terminating in a large
finial, all carved in wood. The total height of the frame-
work is 8 feet, and its width 64 inches, the map itself
forming a circle with a diameter of 52 inches.

The materials used in drawing the map were: — (1.) A
deeply black ink for the outlines and the bulk of the inscrip-

14 INSCEIPTION EOUND THE MAP.

tions. (2.) Vermilion colour for the capitals and some of
the more important names. (3.) Gold-leaf for some of the
largest letters. (4.) A deep mineral blue for the rivers.
(5.) And a vegetable colour, probably green, for the seas,
and many of the lakes and fountains. This last has been
converted by age into a dark brown. The vermilion has
also occasionally disappeared.

An ornamental border foUows the line of the framework,
the lower part consisting of a zig-zag pattern (similar to that
of the " Psalter " Map), with a device of a floral character in
the interstices, and star-shaped flowers at the angles ; while
the upper part or pointed summit represents the interlacing
tendrils of a vine or some such plant.

Immediately inside the edging comes an inscription which
records the names of the commissioners — Theodotus, Xeno-
doxus, and Polyclitus^appointed by Julius Caesar (according
to the statement in the introductory part of the Gosmogrcuphia
of ^thicus) to survey the Eoman world. The inscription

runs thus:— " a SuUo €tmxz otiis tettarum mettrt
cejjtt, ^ i^tcoUoxa omnis ortens titmmsus est. %
©Eotroto septmtrton rt occticns ijtmmsus t%U %
^oltcUto mcrtlttana pars itmensus est/* in the

received text of ^thicus no mention is made of the west;
but some of the MSS. assign this quarter to a fourth com-
missioner, named Didymus. In the above inscription it
win be observed that this quarter is assigned to Theodotus, in
addition to the north. There is in reality no foundation what-
ever for the statement that Caesar undertook such a survey at
all. It should rather have been attributed to the Emperor
Augustus, who ordered such a survey in connection with the
census referred to in Luke ii. 1 (Tacit. Ann. i. 11 ; Cassiodor.
Var. iii. 52). Some of the results of this survey have pro-
bably been preserved to us in the numerous quotations which

ILLUSTEATIONS EOUND MAP. 15

Pliny makes from the Commentaries of Vipsanius Agrippa.
Our cartographer having followed the Cosmographia in the
above inscription, combines, apparently without the smallest
perception of any inconsistency, the more correct version
which attributes the work to Augustus, and which he proba-
bly found in Isidore {Orig. v. 3 6, § 4) ; he accordingly gives
a pictorial representation of the Emperor seated on his throne
and crowned with a tiara, delivering his written orders to the
three commissioners, whose names and portraits are duly

given: — "\xz iTt otiizm uni&frsum tt tit omttt ^jus
contmmtta xdzxiz atr smatum, zX air istam confc
mantram %uiz scrtpto stsillum mzmn apposui" — the

seal, in the form of a vesica, being duly represented, with

the inscription, " -i- S» ^Uflustt ^csatts Impcratoris,"

surrounding a central device of a hand holding a branch.
In support of this the words of St. Luke are quoted from the

Vulgate: — "iLttcas ttt e&bauseli0 > €xtit Jtictum ab
^ugusto (SLzmxz «t tegcrtfierrtur tuttttosus oriis/'

The figures and inscriptions just noticed occupy the
" spandrU. " on the left-hand side of the map, where also is
found the Norman-French inscription already quoted (p. 2).
The corresponding spandril on the right-hand side is occupied
by the figures of a horseman and forester, which have also
been noticed (p. 5), together with the title of the map,
which runs thus : —

"JBescrtptto ©rosii tiz ©rncsta [Ormesta] munlii
sicut mtErius ostentiitur/'

The lower spandrils being thus occupied, the irregularly-
shaped space above the map is filled up with an elaborate
representation of the great Day of Judgment. In the centre
appears the figure of our Saviour, surrounded b)y the clouds
of glory, displaying the stigmata on his uplifted hands, and

16 ILLUSTEATIONS EOUND MAP.

exclaimiug, " dSctt testimonium meum." Angels adore
him amid the clouds, and at a lower level stand a pair drawn
on a larger scale, as though in the foreground, one holding
the crown of thorns, the other the nails. At his feet is a
group of four figures, the most prominent being the Virgin
Mary, who exposes her breasts, and exclaims to her son —

" Feici &eu fij man pij tittizint la pele rijare pretstes :
(B its mamelettes ttont leit tit Virgin queistesj
(Epj merct tte touf si com uos memes Ueistes:
%z mai ant m'ai ftant Sau&cusse me fetstes/'

In the forms of modern French this would run nearly
thus : — ■

" Voici, beau fils, mon pis dedans laquelle chair prttes ;
Et les mamelles dont lait de Virgin querites ;
Ayez merci de tous, si comme vous meme dutes,-
Qui moi out servi, quand Sauveresse me fttes."

The general sense of these lines is conveyed in the
following free translation, given in the Gentleman's Magazine,
No. ccxiv. 1863 : —

" Eegard, my son, the flesli of which thou'rt made ;
Behold the breasts on which thou once wast laid :
On all who worship us pray pity take,
Who me revere, who me their Saviouress take."

Behind the Virgin is a kneeling figure of a woman hold-
ing up a crown, apparently waiting the command to place
it on the Virgin's head. Two angels aid in the Virgia's
supplication.

On the right hand of the Saviour an angel proclaims
through a trumpet the invitation to the blessed : —

" ILe&ej = si ijetttrej a joie pariuraWe,"

" Arise, and come to everlasting joy."

QUAETEES OF THE WOELD. 17

which is responded to by a group of joyful saints, some
rising with alacrity from their graves, others, already risen,
advancing with crowns on their heads ; an angel grasps the
leader by the hand and aids him in the ascent. On the left
hand of the judge are the lost, on whom the sentence of
eternal punishment is passed by the mouth of an angel,
through a trumpet as before : —

"ILe&Ef = si allej in-fu "at enttx mtMz"

"Eise and depart to heU-fire prepared" [? "estable" = "6tabli"].

An avenging angel, with drawn sword, executes this sentence,
and demons drag away the victims to the jaws of heU, here
represented by the head of a fierce monster.

The letters JH © 3^ S are disposed round the world at
its four angles, and are attached to the rim of the map by
figures which seem intended to represent loop-shaped liga-
tures. The design of the author was, no doubt, to impress
the mind of the beholder with a becoming sense of the
transitoriness of aU the grand and interesting objects which
he has delineated — much in the spirit of the well-known
lines: —

" The clond-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,-
The solemn temples, the great globe itself ;
Yea, all which it inherits, shall dissolve,

And

Leave not a rack behind."

Two concentric bands or circles surround the planisphere,
the outer one containing the division into the four quarters
(Climata, Mundi, Isid. Etym., xiii. 1), E., W., N., and S. ;
and the inner one a table of the winds. The names of the
four quarters are inscribed in their proper positions : —

©rims, ©ccitretis, Scptentria, and JSeritito, East and

18 TABLE OF THE WINDS.

West — the two "gates of the sun," as they were termed
(Isid. I.e.; ^thicus, i. 18) — are placed at Paradise and the
Strait of Gibraltar respectively. North and south, to which
alone the term ■' cardines " was assigned, as being the ends of
the axis on which the earth revolves (Isid. I.e.), are not
defined by any special objects ; and this is worthy of remark,
inasmuch as the islands which are identified with the points
by ^thicus (i. 19, 21), namely, Eifarrica in the K and
Syrtinice in the S., are introduced into the map at some
distance off from the cardinal points.

The Table of the Winds contains the twelve-fold division
introduced by Timosthenes, the admiral of Ptolemy PhUa-
delphus (B.C. 285-247), and subsequently adopted by the
Greeks and Eomans, and by mediaeval geographers, who in
this matter were probably guided by the authority of Isidore.
The position and character of the several winds, together
with occasional explanations of their names, are given ia the
legends which we append below. These are chiefly compiled
from the works of Isidore, the explanations of names being
taken from his Orig. xiii. 11, and the characters of the
winds from his treatise De Natura Berum, § 3 7. The deri-
vations of the names Eurus and Vulturnus, and the descrip-
tion of Euro-nothus, come from some other quarter, which
we have been unable to identify. Isidore distinguished
four cardinal winds, Septentrio, Subsolanus, Notus, and
Favonius. The other eight are distributed as subordinate
winds among the four quadrants, just as in the map. The
four cardinal winds are personified by grotesque squatting
figures, and the subordinate winds by the heads of animals.
Perhaps we shall best represent the ideas of our cartographer
if we follow the order observed in the Be Natura Berum,
grouping the winds as follows : —

TABLE OF THE WINDS. 19

I. Septenteio.

1. Septentrto a scptem stellts nomen amplt, qui

frifiiius tt siccus est ct factt arilia friflora et
siccat nu&cs.

2. Circius, qui et STraccas [Thrascias], facit nu6cs

et grantiinum caagulationc [coaguiationes] ijictus
ct (lircius C0 quoli in circuto jungitur cum
Cljoro.

3. ^quilo, qui ct Boreas Iticitur, gclitius ct siccus ;

non triscutit nubcs, set [sed] aquas stringit.

II. Oeiens.

1. Su6soIanus, bctttus ©cciicnti contrarius : Su6=

solanus tiictus quia sub sole oritur; qui rt
^ppolitcs [Apeiiotes] ticitur : qui tcmiJorales
plu&ias latissimas fiacit.

2. aEltUrnUS [Vulturnus], qui ct e:aleaS [Caecias]

Ijicitur Ijissolbit cuncta atquc Uesiccat : iictus
SElturnus* quia flans in alto ijatet potcs-
tatem quasi TOltur [Vuitur].

3. ^urus contrarius ffifjoro : a sinistro Nolans t iueo

Jjictus ®urus CO quo [quod] mor&o afficiatj
Jjomincs mergcntro in mortem ct extramam
[extremum] oricutcm nutilius irrigans.

III. Meeidies.

1. duster contrarius Septcntrioni : bocatus a&
l)aurientiis aquis quarum profusione terram

* Isidore's explanation of the name Vulturnus is " quod alte tonat " (Orig.
ziii. 11, § 6).

+ (?) "flans ; '' the reading in Isidore is " veniens."
t Isidore's explanation is " quod ab eoo flat."

20 TABLE OF THE WINDS.

muntiat ; qui est calltHus et ijumilius, Mmt=
neus, gmerans nulies et plu&ias : et solbtt
flores.

2. €urus5i^ot!)us ""' tlat a tiextris ^ustri : tullilim

nimis, et aqua [aquam] ex marmore Euere factt
et irrigat aquts omnia et Irissolfait : contrarius
eCircio : tiictus nottjus eo quoli facit amtcttts.t

3. <^usttxMfxmB, contrarius ^quiloni, liictus est

^uster=^fricus quolr per Mricam currit.

IV. OCCIDENS.

1. Jabonius tiictus est eo quob germina fobeat et

ati maturitatem pertiucat : W et Eepljtrus :
rigore [rfgorem] jiemis relaxat ; flores pros
bucit.

2. ^fricus, qui et 3Lipsis [Lips] litcitur : generans

tempestates et plubias latisstmas ; facit sonitus
tonitruum et Mgurum nisus [add, "et fuiminum"]
impulsus.

3. Cijorus qui et ^grcstis [Argestesj] • fians in

oriente, nuiiilosus, in gntiia serenus : itieo
Itictus Cj^orus est quotr omnium bentorum
sptritus§ conclutrat.

The ocean is depicted as surrounding the known world

» This wind is more usually called " Euroauster. " The name " Em'onotus "
appears as a, v. I. in Isidore Nat. Eer.

+ " Amictus " was probably suggested by " humectus," which appears in the
explanation which Aulus Gellius, 11. 22, gives of the Greek name v6tos.

t The form " Agrestis " is reprobated by Isidore (Orig. xiii. 11, § 10) as a
vulgar error. It is, nevertheless, the received reading in the De Nat. Mer.

§ The reading in the Orig. is "circulum." The explanation turns wholly
on the order in which the names occur — Chorus coming last in Isidore's de-
scription. This order is, of course, purely arbitrary ; neither Pliny ii. 119,
120, nor Aulus Gellius, ii. 22, observe the same order.

THE OCEAN. Si

on all sides. It can hardly be assumed that our cartographer
intended to represent the true form or full dimensions of the
ocean. He may well have believed, as the majority of medi-
aeval cosmographers did, that it stretched far away to the
south, and formed an impassable barrier between the known
world and the uninhabited lands of other quarters of the
globe. But it was sufficient for his purpose to describe it
as a band of undefined width, girdling the earth-island on all
sides. The southern half of the ocean, from the Strait of
Gibraltar to the Terrestrial Paradise, has a fairly equable
breadth, the only interruption in the course of its outline
being the Arabian Sea, with its two well-known gulfs, the Eed
Sea and the Persian Gulf, which are represented as forming
two forks very similar to those at the head of the Eed Sea.
The sea and its two gulfs are coloured red, in accordance with
the name (Erythreeum or Eubrum Mare) assigned to it in
ancient geography, and of which the two gulfs were consi-
dered as parts (Sohn., 33, § 1 ; 54, § 12). The names of
these seas are not iaserted in the map. The isle of Tapro-
bane (Ceylon) forms a prominent object in this part of the
map. The northern moiety of the ocean is for the most part
of irregular outline. The section adjacent to Spain forms an
exception to this description, as it curves equally round from
the Strait of Gibraltar to the SitlUS ^quitaiticUS {Bay
of Biscay). Thence it protrudes considerably inland, so as
to allow room for the British Isles. The English Channel
and North Sea form a continuous line, and are unduly con-
tracted in point of width. An inlet between the rivers Ems
and Weser may possibly represent the Gulf of Dollart, which
was formed by an irruption of the sea in 1277. The ^itlUS
©CTtltatltCUS {Baltic Sea) foUows, but without any attempt
to delineate its distinctive form; then the Scandinavian
peninsula, divided into two portions by a projecting arm of

22 AREAJSTGEMENT OF MAP.

the sea. Immediately to the eastward of this is another
peninsula occupied by the fabulous Cincocephales, and pro-
bably intended for a part of Eussia. The northern coast of
Asia, -which commences at this point, is drawn in accordance
with the peculiar views of mediseval geographers. The
Caspian, JEare (CaSpiUtn, may be noticed as projecting in
a southerly direction from the Northern Ocean, and terminat-
ing in an easterly elongation, somewhat resembling a shoe.
Immediately eastward of it is the large peniasula in which
Alexander the Great was supposed to have shut up Gog and
Magog. Westward, between the Caspian and Scandinavia,
is a considerable peninsida, which is assigned as the abode
of the happy Hyperboreans. About midway between the
Caspian and Paradise the two promontories named Boreiun
and Samara form the portals of a gulf of considerable size,
which has no representative in true geography. At the
extreme east the coast-line projects westward, so as to allow
room for the Terrestrial Paradise, which is here represented
as an island.

The general arrangement of the map is in accordance
with the accepted tenets of mediaeval geography. Jerusalem
forms the centre of the circle. The east is placed at the head,
the Terrestrial Paradise occupying the place of honour at the
" janua Solis." The Strait of Gibraltar forms the correspond-
ing point in the west. The Mediterranean Sea, §&3XZ
§&Z'iiitZXXUntU.VXt stretches hence half-way up the map, and
at its upper end has a long northerly extension, which includes
the whole series of semi-inclosed seas between the main body
of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea — namely, the
.^gfean, the Hellespont, the Propontis, and the Bosporus.
The easterly extension of the Mediterranean (the Levant) is
represented by two tapering arms or horns, between which
lie Syria and Palestine. The Mediterranean at its upper

DIVISIONS OF THE WOKLD. 23

extremity divides the world into moieties, and sub-divides
the lower moiety into imequal halves. We thus obtain a
natural division for the three continents — Asia occupying
the upper half, Europe and Africa the lower half, to the
left and right hand of the Mediterranean respectively. The
name ^StE is duly inscribed on its division, but (BuXOTjfU
and ^ffrtca have been transposed, probably through care-
lessness, but possibly to convey the notion occasionally
expressed, that Africa was not a separate continent, but a
sub-division of Europe. (Oros. i. 2 ; Isid. Orig. xiv. 2, § 3 ;
Higden, i. 50.) At all events, our cartographer perfectly
well knew the true position of the two continents. At the
Strait of Gibraltar he has placed the inscriptions SC^nttttWS
d^Urope and EzXXainUS ^Wcitt in their right positions,
and he has marked the boundary between Africa and
Asia, WttmiViUS 'ES^Z tt ^UxiCZ, in the place usually
assigned to it in mediaeval geography — namely, to the
westward of Egypt, which was included in Asia. Certain
objects are introduced into the map for the express purpose
of defining the boundary between these two continents. The
chain of mountains which lies adjacent to the inscription
above given is no doubt intended for Catabathmus, inasmuch
as it is so named in the " Imago Mundi " map ; it is, of
course, grievously misplaced, inasmuch as its proper position
is on the coast of the Mediterranean. Orosius (i. 2) describes
the boundary as starting from Paraetonium, on the borders of
Egypt and Alexandria ("a finibus.iEgypti uxbisque Alexandrise
ubi Parethonium civitas sita est "), and then passing through
Catabathmos (" per loca quse Catabathmon vocant ") ; and this
confused statement goes far to justify the error of the map.
Orosius further specifies two boundary marks, both of which
are entered in the map, viz. : CaStra ^lexatllrrt JSlagni,
and 3LaCUS CaleatSUS JirofuntliSSimUS. These objects

24 BOUNDAEY OF EUROPE.

must be placed between Parsetonium and Ammonimn. From
Lake Calearsus the boundary -line was continued south to
the ocean. The boundary between Europe and Asia is not
specified ; probably because the name of the Don (Tanais),
which was deemed the boundary in ancient times, has been
omitted, the cartographer having apparently misunderstood
the language of Orosius (i. 2), who says of the Tanais,
" Meeotides auget paludes," and having assigned to the river
the name jnu&iuS JHcottljegi, "with the addition of ^al;
U'titS, in the lower course of the river. The " Arse Alex-
andri," which are entered in the map somewhat E. of the
Fluvius Meotides, are associated by Orosius (1. c.) with the
course of the Tanais, and with the boundary. Following
the order which mediaeval geographers adopted in their
descriptions of the world, we commence with the continent
of Asia.

CHAPTEE II.

ASIA.

Boundaries — Terrestrial Paradise — The D17 Tree— India — Golden Mountains
— Pigmies — Avalerion par in Mwndo — Palimbotlira — Mons MaUeus —
Taprobane and the Islands of the Indian Ocean — Gangines — Monoculi —
Ganges — Tile — Mons Timavus — Animals attributed to India.

The boundaries of Asia have been already sufficiently defined
in the preceding chapter ; we shall therefore proceed at once
to a description of the various objects presented to our view
on that continent. The Terrestrial Paradise occupies, as was
usual in mediaeval maps, a conspicuous position at the head
of the map, or, in other words, at the extreme easterly point
of the habitable world. The views entertained on this sub-
ject in the middle ages have been noticed in the Introdnction,
§ 9. In the Hereford map Paradise is represented as an
island of circular form, surrounded by a strong and lofty
wall, from the top of which flames burst forth (Isid. xiv. 3,
3). Within it are the four rivers, CHufrateS, STtgrtg,
PljtSOU, and ffiiotT ; figures of Adam and Eve in the act
of eating the forbidden fruit ; and a tower representing the
gates of the garden, ^arallisi porte. Immediately below
are figures, with the legend (iJExpulSiO ^1(0 Ct ^ija ; and
above them a tree with two branches, ar60C fealsattti i
[i. e.) axbOX sicca* This legend seems to be compounded
of more than one story.

1. With the metrical romance of Alexander, or at least
with the tradition on which it was founded, our author was

26 ASIA.

probably acquainted. In this Alexander is represented as
visiting a forest in India, in which grew trees of wondrous
size (cf. Virg. Georg. ii. 123), distilling balsam. Farther on
was a mystic tree, which tore neither leaves nor fruit, whereon
sat the Phoenix. Farther on still he meets with the trees of
the sun and moon, from one of which, as from an oracle, he
learned his own destiny.

2. Marco Polo, in his travels of the 13 th century, men-
tions a plain in Persia (near enough to India for legendary
purposes), in which grew the Tree of the Sun, Arlte Sol,
which " we Christians," he says, " caU the dry tree, Arhre Sec."

3. Sir John Mandeville, in the 14th century, mentions
as if he had seen, though this is of little consequence, the
famous oak, or rather terebinth, near Mamre, which is men-
tioned by Eusebius, and which S. Jerome says that he had
seen ; " the whiche," says Mandeville, " men clepen the drye
Tree. And thei saye that it hath been there sithe the be-
ginninge of the world, and was sumtyme grene, and bare
leves, unto the tyme that oure Lord dyede on the cros, and
thanne it dryede, and so dyden aUe the Trees that weren
thanne in the worlde."

4. The Peutinger Table names a point in India where
" Alexander responsum accepit usquequo Alexander"

5. To these statements may be added the passage in
Ezek. xvii. 24, as suggesting the notion, however erroneous
in its development, of a perennial dry tree ; perhaps also the
mention by Josephus of balsam trees at Engedi, near the
Dead Sea ; and lastly, the Christian legend, that the wood of
the dry tree supplied the material for our Saviour's cross ; " so
that," to use the words of the Golden Legend, " the cross by
which we are saved came of the tree by which we were
damned," — a legend to which is probably due the name of a
street in Paris, Bue de I'Arbre Sec, not far from the Sainte

ASIA. 27

Chapelle, in which the wood of the true cross was deposited
by King Louis IX., its founder.

Now, although our author could not have been acquainted
with Marco Polo's explorations, and as he was prior in date
to Sir John MandevUle, the foregoing data wiU enable us
to understand something of the process of confusion by
which (a) the dri/ tree finds its place near Paradise, (&) on
the confines of India, (c) how it obtained its double name
and bifurcated form of arior halsami and arbor sicca. (Yule,
Marco Polo, i. 1 2 6 ; Weber, Metr. Bom. i. ; Morley, Eng. Writers,
p. 681; DxhAg^, Hist, of Fiction, ii. Ill; MandeviUe, p.
68, ed. Halliwell ; Bordeaux PUgrim, p. 282 ; Hieron. de Situ
et Norn. vol. ii. pp. 862, 890; Euseb. Vit. Const, iii. 51;
Demonstr. Evang. v. 9, 7 ; Isid. xiv. 3, 2, xvii. 7, 3 8 ; Spruner,
Atlas, PL 28 ; Early Trav. pp. 7, 45 ; Golden Legend, by
Caxton, pp. 5, 67.)

The word Jtliia, in gold letters, runs across the map India,
from KE. to S.E. On the left (N.) side, below Paradise, is
(l!fn0S CtbitaS antiquiSSima (Gen. iv. 17) ; on the right the
giants, ©igantCS (Gen. vi. 4). Below them comes jFlxiJjiUS
gppaixiS, the Hyphasis, sometimes called Hypanis, Sutledge
(Dionys. Per. 1155; Solinus, 52, 7; Strabo,xv. 697, 698) ;
and parallel with it flubiUS paStHa, a branch of the same
river, which runs in a N.E. direction, but whose name,
though inviting more than one etymology, affords no trust-
worthy clue to its identity. Above the Hypanis is prO=

munctorium aligartramana, Peomontoeium Caiigaedamna,

which Orosius mentions as near the mouth of the Ganges,
and at the N.E. of the island Taprobane. It may per-
haps represent the promontory Calligicum of Ptolemy, but
is vastly out of its proper place. (Ores. i. 2 ; Ptol. vii. 1,
11.) Then comes Cotomare portUS, CoTTONAEA of Pliny
and Solinus, Cottiara of Ptolemy, now probably Cochin (Plin.

28 ASIA.

India, vi. 105 ; Sol. 54, 8 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 9 ; Diet, of Geog. i. 698) ;

and portus patalug, ifamu spiraticts scelerifeus (portus

Patalus infamis piraticis sceleribus). This is clearly Pataie
of Pliny, Patalene of Mela and Ptolemy, the triangular
district between Cutch and Kurrachee, credited by our author
with the ill fame of pirates, whom Pliny and Solinus locate
at Zvmaris, mentioned below. (Plin. vi. 184; Mela, iii. 7;
SoUn. 54, 8; Ptol. vii. 1, 55, 59.)

Beyond Patalus is the figure of an elephant with a
castle on his back, and adjoining it the legend Enllta tllitttt

ettam elcjjfjantcs maxtmos, quorum lientes £&ur esse
crrtitur, quttius IxCbzi (indi) turrtbus impositts in

ielliS UtUUtUr, which seems to be founded on Isidore.
(Plin. viii. 27 ; Isid. xii. 2, 14, 15.)

Eetuming to the joint mouth of the rivers f^gpauiS and
^aSttia, we find a range of gilded mountains, surmounted by
two dragons, and the words mOTXtCS aurCOS a iraCOTttbUiS
CUStOtlit (custoditos), founded, as it seems, on the words of
^thicus, but derived from very early tradition. (Herod, iii.
116; ^sch. Prom. v. 806; PI. vii. 10; Hieron. ^p. 125,
3; ^thic. 105.) Below them are the ^tgiUft CUftitalcS
homines (Isid. xi. 3, 26), who stand upon mOtlteS ^tltlie
(Indiae), according to the descriptions of Pliny and Solinus.
(Plin. vi. 70; Sol. 52, 15.)

Following thePASMA, we meet with ^tCCaS andJSucrfala,
NiCEA and Bucephala, two towns founded by Alexander near
the river Hydaspes, and beyond them ^xtt ^XtXKX^Xi,
denoting the twelve altars set up by him to mark the ter-
mination of his expedition, and the commencement of his
unwUling return. (Arr. Ex^. v.; Solin. 45, 10 ; 52, 7.) A
little farther is the figure of a bird, intended for a parrot,
with a descriptive legend from Solinus (52, § 43): — SoliUUS,

^ntita mtttit abem spttacum [psittacum] : colore birtUi :

ASIA. 29

torque JJUntCeO. The blunder in the name of the bird may India.
be due either to a marginal reading, syptacus, in Solinus
(see App. p. 245), or to the form which appears in ^thicus
(cap. 106), n-sxaeij, psiptacus.

Eeturning to the Monies Indice, we find two rivers,
which subsequently coalesce, the ^ceSttieS {CJienal) and the
l^gliaSpeS {Jhelum). Both of them rise in mountains,
in a region described as EmgtlUW CtapfjiS XZ^m qui
[Eegnum Cleophidis regin£e, quae] ^lexanUtUm SUSCeptt*
The queen here referred to is the same of whom we shall
hear again under the name of Cleopatra.

Between the two rivers is the figure of a crocodile or
aUigator, with the word |LaC0ttUS, which creature Arrian and
Pliny mention as aboundiag in the Indus. (Arr. Exp. v. ;
Plin. vi., § 75.) Just beyond this we find mention of the
realm of Porus and Abisares, two Indian kings with whom
Alexander contended in the neighbourhood of the Hydaspes
(Arr. Exp. v. ; Curt. viii. 1 2, 1 3, ix. 1) : — l^etTgTlUttt [Eegnum]

pijort ti ^trisarts qui tiecerta&eruut cum maguo ^In-
an"Ciro«

Parallel with the Hydaspes is the Indus (^tttlUS), having
two head-streams, one rising in mountains belonging to the
group already mentioned as JSoutCS ^nlji0, and the other in a
range called JHOTtS .Sepijar, which may perhaps be taken to
represent the " Mount of the East " of Gen. x. 30. l^ear the
source of the former stream is a town, with a superscription
which seems to read as follows: — 3£lananll0 amptlt Citca

^racusiam cifaitatem seramts tmposuit, which should pro-
bably be thus mended, Etymandeo amni cieca Aeachosiam . . .
Semiramis imposuit. It is founded on the following passage
in Solinus : — Arachosiam Erymaniho amni impositam Semira-
mis condidit. The river adjoining this town is perhaps in-
tended for the Erymanthus, more commonly called Etymand-

30 ASIA.

India, rus, for which a corrupt v. I. had rimando, corrupted in the
third degree, as above, into ranando. Solinus means to say
that Semiramis placed the town Arachosia in the midst of the
river Erymanthus or Etymandrus. Pliny, whom Solinus
follows, says that Semiramis founded Arachosia, and that
some called it Cophen, and he mentions the Erymanthus as
flowing through the province of Arachosia. The Etymandrus
is probably the Helmund, which flows S.W. from the moun-
tains of Cabul into the lake Hamoon, and not into the Indus
as the map seems to express; but the river Cophen or
Cophes, the Gahul, flows into the Indus, running in a direction
from N.W. to S.E. How the town Arachosia came to be called
Cophen it is difficult to say. (Plin. vi. § 92 ; Solin. 54, 2 ;
Did. of Geogr. i. 184.)

At the source of the other head stream we have a
town which is said to have been destroyed by Cyrus, ffiaSSica
Cibitas quam CirUS leStrUXit, The place intended is no
doubt Capissa, which Pliny says was destroyed by Cyrus.
It perhaps answers to Peshawur, but it is unlikely that this
point was reached by him. (Plin. vi. § 92 ; Solin. .54, 2 ;
Did. Geogr. i. 505.)

Between the Hydaspes and the Indus are figures of two
birds, probably intended for eagles, with an inscription,
^Ualerion, par in tnunlJO. This may perhaps be founded
on Pliny, who, in speaking of eagles, mentions one, the
melanaetos, or black eagle, which, though the smallest in size,
is pre-eminent in strength, and therefore called Valeria (from
valeo). It dwells in mountains ; and further on he says that
a pair of eagles, par aquilarum, require a large tract of
country to support them. But the notion of the aualerion,
as expressed in the map, is directly derived from the old
bestiary books, which teU us that the Alerion is a bird,
rather small, yet larger than an eagle, and that in the whole

ASIA. 31

world there is only one pair. They live sixty years, and India.
then lay two eggs, on which they sit sixty days and nights.
When the shell is biirst the parents fly to the sea, accom-
panied by all other birds, and drown themselves therein.
The other birds then return and nnrse the young ones till
they can fly. (Plin. x. §§ 6, 14 ; Cahier et Martin, MSlange^
SArcMologie, vol. ii. p. 162.) The eagle, according to an
eastern tradition, is in the habit of flying so close to the sun
as to become extremely hot, and to cool himself dives into
the sea, where he becomes renewed in youth and plumage.
This he does every ten years until his hundredth year, when
having dropped into the sea as usual, he dies. (Kimchi,
from Saadia, an Arabian writer on Ps. cui. and Is. xl ; ap.
Bochart, iii. pp. 166, 169. See also Epiphanius, Physio-
logics, 6.)

In a triangular space, two of whose sides are mountains,
we have an inscription referring to the kingdom of
Cleopatra, queen of Mazagae, a town situate among
the Daedalian mountains, and whose interview with Alex-
ander is recorded by Curtius, Justin, and Orosius, from which
last author the statement of the map is probably derived :

Inter ©rtaltos montes rengnunt Cleopatrc regine que

^lexanlrrUltt SUSCepit. Ptolemy mentions a town called
Daedala, between the Hydaspes and the Viadhyan mountains,
and the name of the town has perhaps given rise to that of
the mountains. (Ptol. viii. i. 49; Curt. viii. 10, 19, 22;
Oros. iii. 19.)

Next comes a figure representing, as it seems, a female
soldier, and an inscription taken from Solinus (52, S 15) :

^anliea gens ^ntiie a femtnts regttur. Adjacent to

this figure is a town set in a frame, with an inscription taken
in substance from Isidore (xv. 1, § 6) : — |^uam pSTysam]

ct&ttatem ©tonisius pater conUilrit; replens earn IL.

32 ASIA.

India. mtUbUS fjOttlinUttt. Beyond this comes a mountain, with
an inscription from Solinus (52, § 16), IHonS SofaiS acer=
merOS [Jovi sacer Mercs] Ijicitur ttl CUJUS SpeCU nUtritUttt

iLifterum patrcm ^[ntii beteres aftnant [adfiimant].

Passing a nameless affluent of the Indus we come to
an angular range of mountains, enclosing an inscription
representing the substance of passages from Pliny and
Solinus, in close connection with the subject of the next
article, which it wUl be convenient to consider first. This
is a town on the Indus, with an inscription taken almost
verbatim from Solmus (52, § 12), ^o66rota [Pahmbothra]

ctbitas quam inf)a6itant ^^rasia gens |[nbte baliiiisstma
quorum xtx WE peiitum rt equitum m zt clepfjatitorum

FIeI COtitlie [quotidie] alj StipCtttlium ijOCat. The town
here alluded to, Palimbothra, mentioned by Ptolemy as a
royal city, by Arrian and Strabo as the principal city of
India, and by the Alexandrian Komance as Polybote,
answers to the city of Patna, whose Sanscrit name was
Pataliputea.

Between Palibothra and Mons Meros, a range of moun-
tains is depicted, representing Mons Malleus, with the follow-
ing inscription: — ©JUS fiCorcttta tixzK ilHallcum moutcm
Jjatritant : cuius umbre ab [ad] aquilonem cabunt Ijseme,

ab aUStrUttt fStatC. Eeference has been already made
to this mountain in the Introduction (p. xvi.) The legend
in the map is founded on Solinus, who says, ultra Faliloth-
ram mons Maleus, in quo umbrae Jiieme in septemtriones,
cestate in austros cadunt, vicissitudine hac durante mensilus
senis. Pliny, speaking of a tribe called Suari, says, quorum
mons Maleus, and then describes the alternation of the
shadows. The reader will notice Pliny's expression quorum
mons Maleus, with which the map agrees more closely than
with the text of Solinus. But what was the gens Corcina of

ASIA. 33

the map ? The name can hardly be intended to denote the India.
Suari, still less the Prasian nation. The Peutinger Table,
however, names a town Coesania, not far from the mouth of
the Ganges, on which Palimbothra was situate, which may
perhaps have suggested a transfer of its name to that of a
people. But its equivalent is not known. (Ptol. vii. i.
73 ; Strabo, xv. p. 702 ; Plin. vi. § 68, 69 ; Solin. 52, 12,
13 ; Weber, Bom. vol. i. v. 4889.)

Beyond Palimbothra, on the sea coast, are JHottS .Scpf)ar,

Brcpanum jjromunctortum (promontonum) and Ztmarim

JlOrtUS, aJl of them names connected with the sea voyage be-
tween Egypt and India. Sephab, which was perhaps intended
by our author as a repetition or continuation of the " Mount of
the East" mentioned above, had an equivalent in a town of
that name on the Arabian peninsula, described by Arrian,
Pliny, and Ptolemy, as a " metropolis." Deepanum, otherwise
called Lepteacea and the " Indian promontory," was on the
W. shore of the Eed Sea ; and ZiMAKis, so called by Solinus.
but by PHny MuziEis, was a commercial port on the coast of
India, now probably Mangalore, and was considered danger-
ous on account of the pirates. (Plin. vi. | 104, 175 ; Solin.
54, 8 ; Ptol. iv. 5, 14; vi. 7, 41 ; vii. 1, 8 ; Diet, of Bible,
iii. 1197; Did. Geogr. ii. 380.)

In the scarlet bifurcation, which represents the Eed Sea, Islands
Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean, we have a large triangu- iJi

lar island, intended for Ceylon, with an inscription mainly ^ ^^"^

. p . Ocean.

borrowed from Isidore, xiv. 6, § 12, to the effect that it has

two summers, two winters, and two springs in each year, and

that the further part of the island abounds in elephants and

dragons. In this latter point our cartographer has somewhat

improved on Isidore, by converting his hedice into dragons.

The notice of the ten cities comes from Orosius, i. 2. With

regard to the form of the name Taphana, for Taprobane, we

c

34 ASIA.

Islands may compare Ta;pbana in the map of Henry of Mayence.

in

The inscription runs thus : — Captatia [Taprohane] ittSUla

oSri gntiic suftjacens aU eurum ex quo ©ccauus Eniicus
itxcipit; fjairt in anno tiuas estates et tiuas tiemes et
his floriius faemat, Si ulterior pars elep^antis et
Xiraconiftus plena: Ijaliet et % cibitates. The wild

animals are duly displayed, with the title IBracOUeS J as
also is the river, which Isidore describes as intersecting the
island.

Near Taphana are the islands Crise, Srgire, ©p!)ir,
and JFrontliSia, Of these Cheyse and Aegyee are men-
tioned by Pliny as islands near the mouth of the Indus;
by Mela, Cheyse as near the promontory Tamus, probably
Cape Negrais, in Burmah ; Aegyre as near the mouth of the
Ganges. Ptolemy describes a silver region, Aegyea, and a
" golden chersonese," and also an island lahadiou, whose
capital was Argyra. Perhaps, on the whole, Chryse may be
taken as representiag Sumatra, and Argyre, Java, or the
Burmese territory. But both of these, together with Ophie,
which Higden calls an island, represent collectively the gold
and silver region of the East, so often mentioned in Scrip-
ture, and whose position, little known to the people of the
West, is placed by the mediaeval geographer at a group of
islands, a position which seems to give a sort of certaia
definiteness to what is in itself uncertain. jll^OnljiSta stands
for Apheodisia, alSiera, ia the Persian G-ulf. Between
Taphana and the next article is introduced an island called
CiprUS. which seems to have found its way here from the
list of islands of the Eastern Ocean, given by Julius Hono-
rius, but for what reason is not apparent. It might probably
represent Sippara, a town mentioned by Ptolemy, on the W.
side of India, but this seems hardly probable. Lelewel
thinks it is intended for Capraria, one of the Fortunate

ASIA. 35

Islands; but as Capraria appears farther on, this does not Islands
seem likely. (Plin. vL § 80, 111 ; Solin. 52, 17 ; 54, 13 ; i^
Ptol. vii. 1, 16 ; Isid. xiv. 3, 5 ; 6, 11 ; Jul. Honor, p. 10 ; Jj^^^^
Higden, 1, 11 ; Clark, Bible Atlas, p. 37, seq)

Eeturning to the mainland of India, we find the Ganges India.
taking its rise in a range of mountains called ©SCO, and
emptying itself into the ocean by two mouths forming a delta.
In a space between these mountains and another range called
Caucasiis is a tree with figures of long-robed, red-girdled
natives, busily employed in gathering the fruit, with the name
ffiattfltttCS above them. This name comes from -.Ethicus, and
is found in Ptolemy as GtANGAJTi, though these lived near the
mouth of the river. The name is probably confused with the
Aganginae of Ptolemy, who dwelt in Lybia. They probably
represent the GtANGAHID^, a name which Isidore says denotes
their neighbourhood to the Ganges, whose name, again, comes
from Gaitgaeus, a king of India. Orosius informs us that
the Ganges rises in the mountain range called Oscobaees,
where grows the plant called Laser. The name Oscobaees,
which Isidore writes Oscobeigis, probably represents the
Oxian Mountains of Ptolemy and Strabo, dividing Scythia
from Bactria, and though the Ganges does not rise in them,
their position, as well as those assigned to CaUCaSUS,
Paropamisus (mOtltCS ^aropattitateS), and Imaus (monS
2Dtltta&US)) is not unfairly represented in the Map. The
Caucasus here named is of course the Hindoo Koosh, or
Indian Caucasus. The name Caucasus was given, as Arrian
tells us, by the soldiers of Alexander's army, in compliment
to their leader, though unwittingly they underrated its value,
for the mountain range which they so called was really far
in advance of the true Caucasus between the Caspian and
Black Seas, and much more distant from his and their own
home. The tree, whose fruit the Gangines are so busily

36 ASIA.

India, gathering, cannot be tlie Laser, or Laserpitium, which is a
shrub only, and not a tree, but is no doubt intended to illus-
trate the inscription from Solinus, which is given below.
(Ptol. iv. 6, 23 ; vii. 2, 13; Oros. i. 2; .^thic. 57, 106;
Arr. Ea^. iii. v.; Isid. ix. 2, 41; xvii. 9, 27; Plin. vi.
§ 65 ; xxii. § 101 ; Solin. 49, 6 ; 52, 8.)

A little above the tree is CatirUStnia, and on the other
side of the mountain '^ItXB.VitSXidL CtbttaS, two names for
the same town, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, ia the
country of the Cadrusi, and due to a misunderstanding, as it
seems, by Solinus, of the passage in which Phny mentions it.
Solinus calls it. Cadrusium. (Plin. vi. § 92 ; SoIlq. 54, 2 ;
Diet. Geogr. i. 463.)

Near these towns is an inscription founded on a passage
in Solinus, descriptive of a peculiar people living near the
sources of the Ganges, probably the Gangines already de-
scribed : — Siolmus : ffiangis fontem qui acolunt i solo
biJjunt otjore jjomorum sil&estrium; qui si fttorm

SCnSerint, Statim moriuntur. The story comes from
Megasthenes, who says that these people, whom he calls
aanfioi, mouthless, live on the smell of roast meat and the
scents of fruits and flowers, and are so much annoyed by
bad smells, especially in camp, that they scarcely survive
them. It has been suggested that he mistook a Sanscrit
name resembling ^ffro/io/ in sound, and invented the story to
explain the word. Pliny, in his account of them, omits the
roast meat, but says that they carry the apples with them
on their journeys, for bad smells easily deprive them of life,
graviore odore haud difficulter exanimari. Solinus and Sir J.
MandeviUe improve upon this, and say that they die " anon."
The stooping figure in the picture is doubtless inhaling his
daily food, but he is plainly doing so carefully, lest

" The quick effluvia, darting through his brain,"

ASIA. 37

he should India.

" Die of a rose in aromatic pain."

(Megasth. /ra^r. 29; Plin. viii. §25; Solin. 52, 29; Sir J.
Mand. p. 297; Lardner, Cycl. Geogr. i. p. 67.)

After passing the tttOntCS }jaropattitat0S we encounter
a figure engaged in screening himself from the solar heat
with his own leg and foot. He has indeed but one leg, but
it is a leg of great and varied ability. Wot only does it,
when "stuck stiffly out," like Miss Kilmansegg's "precious
leg," serve as a natural parasol, but it is also an instmment
of rapid locomotion. Solinus derived the legend from Pliny,
and he from Ctesias, who wrote in the 5th century B.C., but
never saw India. The MonocoU, or Sciapodes, whom Pliuy
describes, are mentioned by Scylax of Caryanda, who wrote
a little before the age of Alexander, and also by Megasthenes,
to whom they were described by the philosophers (Brahmins).
The inscription, borrowed substantially from Solinus, stands

thus: — ^|aott0nilt [MonocoH]: gunt Itx ^ixUia sinsuUs
crurilius pernici celeritate t{m u6t ijrfenUi S0 belint a
calor0 solis plantarum suarum magnttutitne o6ums

bratltur* The reader will notice the change of monocoli
(one-legged) into monoculi (one-eyed). Sir John MandeviUe
has described this marvel of creation, but places him in
Ethiopia, a country frequently confounded with India, as a
fruitful mother of marvels. He says, "In that contree
ben folk, that han but foot : and thei gon so fast, that
it is marvaylle: and the foot is so large that it schade-
wethe alle the Body azen the Sonne, whanne thei wole
lye and reste hem." Schwanbeck, the German editor of
Megasthenes, thinks that the Monocoli were described to
Megasthenes under their Sanscrit name Scapddas, fiov6mSi{
(one-footed), and that he, with a pardonable pun, changed the

38 ASIA.

India, name into iiKumSig (swift-footed). The origiaal of the story-
was probably some animal of the monkey tribe, developed by
natural selection into the Monocolus man ; or perhaps the
whole story is a perversion of the Indian use of umbrellas,
noticed by Arrian. {Megwih. frac/. 29, pp. 67, 116 ; Ctesias,
p. 378, ed. Baehr.; Aristoph. Pax. 1554; Phn. vii. | 23;
Solin. 52, 29; Isid. xi. 3, 23 ; MandeviUe, Trav. p. 157;
Philolog. Mus. i. 245 ; Arr. Ind. p. 540.)

Beyond the Monocolos figure the Ganges divides itself
into two streams, forming an island or delta, within which is
an inscription made up from two passages in Solinus, who
says that the least breadth of the Ganges is eight miles, and
the greatest nineteen miles ; that the river makes an island,
whose king can send out 4000 cavalry and 50,000, not
80,000, infantry soldiers. (SoHn. 52, 7,11): — SolmUS:

minima ffiangis latituto jjra vim passuum, maxima px
Sei patrt, Bern Ganges insulam facit cuius xtx mm
milta militum [equitum] et Ciii pettitum*

Opposite the N.W. mouth of the Ganges a second Mount
Caucasus appears, placed within an island called SDilc, fruitful
in all good things. The island which this denotes, Tylos,
in the Persian Gulf, is placed by Solinus in India. The in-
scription is taken in substance from Solinus, in a passage
upon which foUows closely an account of Mount Caucasus, to
which circumstance perhaps is due its position within the
island of Tile. (Sohn. 52, 49, 50; Isid. xiv. 3, 5; Aug.
Civ. D. xxi. 5, 1.) North of the branch of the Ganges first
mentioned, is an inscription descriptive of the length of
India, the variety of the nations Kving within its limits, and
its natural products, as follows : — ffiatlCfCS. ©CCiCS SCJJs

ties cmtraa rt IL millia passuum longituljo Inliie tenet,
teste Solino, Etem f eibitatum et Iri&ersissimo [e],
gentes monstruoso bultu, ritu, et Jjafiitu bario, plus

ASIA. 39

quam crelit posstt, ©emmarum et metallorum alttu= india.
entia mm pmculo tottus Qtnexis iesttarum rt serpm=
ttum quae omnia jiotius legratia sunt quam ptnflmtia.

This is taken from several passages in Solinus, — the dis-
tances from 54, 10 ; the 5000 cities from 52, 4 ; the variety
of races and dresses in substance from 52, 19; the personal
appearance of the natives from 52, 27 ; and the abundance
of precious stones from 52, 53-62.

Adjoining this, on the left, is a sort of triangular com-
partment, enclosed between j^oUS CaUCaSUS on one side
and JHonS STima&US on the other, divided by a river,
and ending in a mountain with the words, promunctOtium
.Samara, it contains also the following — (1.) An inscrip-
tion, Inllia que (quas) Untm facit ; (2.) A representa-
tion of foliage, with the words, ^allantrj jsil&as ptpcrcas

ijaftent ; (3.) A town called CrtStoaS, These names and
descriptions seem to be founded on passages in Orosius and
Solinus. The former says that the Mons Imaus, for which
a V. I. has Timavxts, is at the extreme E., where the Caucasus
terminates, and where the river Cheysoeehoas, and the pro-
montory Samaea, are met by the Eastern Ocean. The pro-
montory Samara may perhaps represent Sumatra, called
Samara by Marco Polo, or a place in the silver Chersonese
called Sambra. The river may be the river called by Ptolemy
Oichardus, and by Orosius, OdacJiordis ; but respecting the
town Ceistoas little can be offered in the way of suggestion
beyond a similarity in name to Chrysorrhoas, a river mentioned
by Orosius. The pepper woods are described by Solinus,
after Pliny, as frequent on the S. side of the Caucasus, and
are also mentioned by Cosmas Indico-Pleustes and Isidore,
but who the Pallandae may be it is difficult, if not impossible,
to say. Ptolemy mentions a tribe called Fulindce on the N.W.
side of India, a town called Palanda, and also a river, called

40 ASIA.

India. Palandes, in the Golden Chersonese ; and it must he added
that the whole compartment has an appearance of being
intended to represent India beyond the Ganges, with the
exception that it is situate on the W. instead of the E. side
of that river. (Ptol. vi. 15, 2; vii. 1, 64; 2, 3, 5, 25;
Oros. 1, 2; Solin. 52, 50; Cosm. Indie, iii. p. 336, ed.
Montf. ; Isid. xvii. 8, 8.)

Before quitting India we have to notice some articles
relating to its zoology ia other parts of the map. In the
part which adjoins Ethiopia we have — (1.) An animal in-
tended for a rhinoceros, though putting forth a speed which
that animal does not usually possess. Above it is a super-
scription, altered and abridged from Solinus : — SoUtlUS X

En gntita nascitur J^inosccros cut color 6uxeus; in
narihus cornu unum mucroncm cxcitat quum aibersuiS
clcpljantcs prcUatur; per [par] tpsis in longitutiine,
lircbior cruritius, naturaltter album pctcns, quam solam

intClligit ictiiUS SUiS pcr&iam. This description, founded
upon Pliny, and which agrees almost word for word with
Diodorus, who followed Agatharchides, is substantially
correct. The rubbing of the horn against rocks seems to
indicate the habit of the animal in wallowing on the ground
like a pig. His way of fighting with the elephant is correct
in itself, and agrees with the description of Strabo, though
there is no real foundation for the statement of habitual
enmity between the two animals. (Plin. viii. 71; Diod. Sic.
iii. 35; Strabo, xvi. p. 774; Solin. 30, 21.)

(2.) Below this comes a description of the Monoceeos,
or unicorn, which Isidore identifies with the rhinoceros, but
which our author appears to have regarded as distinct. The
term unicorn, which, though not invariable as regards the
species, may be applied justly to the most common sort of
Indian rhinoceros, has been transferred in our English Bible

ASIA. 41

to denote an animal of a totally different kind. Solinus, India.
following Pliny pretty closely, calls the monoceros atrocissi-
mus . . . monstrum mugitu horrido, equina corpore, el&phanti
pedihus, cauda suilla, capite cervino, cornu d media fronte . . .
splendore mirifico, ad magnitudinem pedum guattuor - . . vivus
non venit in Tiominum, potestatem, et interimi guidem potest
capi non ■potest. (Plin. \dii. § 76 ; Solin. 52, 39.) This
description is founded on that of Ctesias concerning the
Indian ass, but with an augmentation of the horn from two
to four feet. Aristotle also describes this animal as a unicorn,
with a horn in the centre of his forehead. The late J. C.
Bahr, editor of Ctesias, thought that he meant to describe a
rhinoceros, but the description by no means fully answers to
this opinion. The name rhinoceros occurs first in Agathar-
chides, about 150 B.C., and some of the animal's habits
described iu the preceding article were evidently unknown
both to Ctesias and Aristotle. The description of Agathar-
chides is followed by Diodorus, circ. a.d., who does not mention
the unicorn. Strabo, A.D. 20, briefly notices the unicorn as
a homed horse, said by Megasthenes to' be found in India,
but he describes the rhinoceros from the description of
Artemddorus, confirmed by his own observation. Pliny and
Solinus, as we have seen, regard the two animals as distinct,
and both are described separately by Cosmas Indico-Pleustes
about 535 a.d. Figures of both, taken from MSS. either at
first or second hand, are given in Montfaucon's edition of
Cosmas. His rhinoceros has two horns, and he says that he
had seen the animal, both alive and dead, in Ethiopia — i.e.
probably in Abyssinia. The monoceros he says that he had
not seen, but made his drawing from bronze statues in the
palace of the king of Ethiopia. He identifies it with the
animal mentioned in Numb, xxiii. 22, and Pss. xxii. 21,
xxix. 6. In aU these passages the LXX. version, which

42 ASIA.

India. Cosmas quotes accurately, renders tlie Hebrew word by
monoceros. In tbe first of them the Vulgate has rhinoceros,
and in the two last unicornis. "With this exception Isidore
appears to be the earliest writer who regards the two animals
as identical, and also to be one of the first to introduce the
story of the maiden, unknown to Cosmas a century before,
which found so much favour in later times, and which
appears in the Bestiaries, with illustrations, in some of which
the deluded animal is represented as reposing in aU confidence
in the lap of a lady, while the treacherous hunter, in fuU
armour, stabs him from behind. This is described in the
map in a legend borrowed from Isidore: — ©giltoruS iu

libro 3EHE etijtmologiarum [Etymoiogiarum] capitulo M.
Sicut asserunt qui naturas animalmm scrtpsErunt.
f^ttic monoccrott trtrgo jjuclla proponitur, que feenietiti
siuum a|in:tt ; in quo ille omni ferocitate Ijeposita capui
[caput] ponit, sic que sojjoratus, &elut( [velut] iuermis

CajjitUt, The monoceros is also described in the Alex-
andrian Eomance —

" A best there is, of more log,
That is y-cleped monoceros."

The figure of the monoceros, as given in Montfaucon from
Cosmas, is like that of an antelope, with a horn rising straight
upwards from his forehead. This resembles what used to be
regarded in Europe as the horns of unicorns, but which are
really tusks of the narwhal, monodon monoceros, a native of
arctic, and perhaps antarctic, but not tropical, seas ; and it
is worthy of remark that Pietro della VaUe, after mentioning
Pliny's description of the monoceros, says that Captain
Woodcock, an arctic voyager, had told htm that he had met
with unicorns near Greeidand. Whether the original, from
which the horns of the statues which Cosmas saw were

ASIA. 43

imitated, was one of these tusks, cannot be ascertained, nor India.
what the animals were which Montfaucon says the Jesuit
missionaries in Abyssinia, who had reared them, re-
garded as unicorns. The whole story is perhaps a com-
posite one, and the narwhal's tooth has been fitted to the
head of some goat-Kke animal, whose pair of horns, in a side-
long position, has appeared to a distant observer like a single
one. (Ctes. § 25 ; Agatharch. ap. Phot. Bill. 250, p. 455 ;
Arist. Part. Anim., iu. 2, 7 ; Strabo, xv. p. 710 ; Cosm. Indie,
xi. p. 335, ed. Montf. ; Isid. xii. 2, 12, 13 ; Geographia Uni-
versalis, p. 25; P. d. VaU. ii. 491; Weber, Bom. i. v. 65,
38; Brit. Mus. Bihl. Beg. xii. F. 13; Earl. MSS. 3244;
Cahier et Martin, Md. d'Arch. ii. 220 ; Yule, Marco Bolo, ii.
234.)

(3.) In Egypt, on the borders of Arabia Petrsea, there is
a pictorial representation of a fabulous animal called Eale,
with an inscription taken substantially from SoUnus, as

foUows : — Solmus : <&^z nascitur in ^ntia, equina
corpore, caulia depijanti, nigro colore, maxillas caprinas
prrferens iSoi. Maxiiiis apmgnis), comua ultra cubttalem
longa, tteque mim rigent, scU mobcntur ut usus mgtt
preliatitii, quorum cum uno pugnat, alter rcpUcat* Some

of the verbal alterations in the above inscription proceed
from the Geographia Universalis, or from the Bestiaries ;
but what animal possesses this convenient method of simul-
taneous defence and offence is perhaps not to be ascertained.
Pliny says it was as large as a hippopotamus. It may be
the beast called by Cosmas, who says he had eaten of its
flesh, CJioerdaphus, whose teeth weighed 13 lbs. each. (PKn.
viii. 73 ; Solin. 52, 35 ; Geogr. Univ. p. 25 ; Bibl. Eeg. Brit.
Mus. xii. F. 1 3 ; Cosmas, Indicopl. p. 336, ed. Montf)

(4.) To these we have to add a fabulous animal, the
Mantichoea, with a human head and a leonine body, re-

44 ASIA.

India, puted to be a native of India, but transposed in the map to
tbe north of Caucasus. This is described in a legend taken

from Soiinus, as foUows : — .Solmus : IHatiticora ttascitur
in ^ntiia, tripUca timttum otainz, facie Ijominis, glaucis
oculis, sattguineo colore, corpore leonitto, cautia scor=

piOttiS, faoce Sibilla. SoUnus adds that it has a particular
relish for human flesh. The picture given by Ctesias, from
whom Pliny derived his description, is even more frightful
still, especially as to the tail. This is furnished, he says,
with at least three stings, which the creature is able to pro-
ject at an enemy like darts, and so venomous as to cause
instant death. But he says nothing about the vox sibila
and its imitative powers. It must be allowed that our
cartographer, perhaps in compassion to his readers, has
diminished the terrors of the tail, which, though defiant in
attitude, appears nevertheless to be destitute of scorpionic
sting. The writer of the Geographia Universalis adds that
his speed is swifter than a bird's flight, and that with his
shrill voice he is able to go up and down the scale. (Ctes.
6 ; Plin. viii. 75 ; Solin. 52, 37; Geogr. Univ. p. 25.) Near
this animal is a nameless tree, which seems to be intended
to represent an Indian fig-tree, /cms Indica (Plin. xii. 23).

CHAPTEE III.

ASIA — Continued.

Bactria — Hunni — Soythia and Serica— Eonese Insulse— Olchi — Mons Molans —
Gog and Magog — Sogdiana — Samarkand — Islands of the Northern Ocean
— Hypertoreans — Turks — Scythotauri Soy thse — Arimaspi — Albani — Col-
elds — Caspian Gates.

QXTITTING India we proceed to the countries lying on the Baetria,
the N. and N.W., and at the source of the Ganges we find
3Sactr{a, enclosed between two branches of the Cau-
casus, the upper part of the river 33acttUS, whose name
appears below, and the tttOnteS iSetttamaU. Of these
the river Bactrus is said to have given its name to
the very ancient, but now much decayed town 3SacttUtlt,
Balkh. The moxmtains are called by Orosius mons Memae-
MALi, and are said by him to divide the Hyrcanians from
the Parthians. They probably represent an outlying branch
of the Paropamisus, perhaps the range called by Ptolemy
the Sariphian mountains in Margiana ; but the origin of the
name Memarmali does not appear. The Bactrian district is
chiefly occupied by the figure of a camel having two humps, as
a Bactrian camel ought to have, with an inscription from

Isidore: — iSacttta camelos tairt fortisstmos, nunquam

pCljeS attfrCUtfS. TMs is founded on SoHnus, who says
that the Bactrian camels are distinguished from the Arabian
by having one hump only, whereas the Arabian have two,
a statement directly contrary to the fact, as well as to the
authority of Aristotle and PHny. He is followed in his
mistake, in increased measure, by Isidore ; but our author has

46 ASIA.

Baetria. judiciously preferred to represent his camel with his proper
number of humps. (Arist. H. Anim. ii. 1, 24 ; Plia. vi.
§ 48 ; viii. § 67 ; Solin. 49, 1, 9 ; ^thic. § 109 ; Isid. xii.
i. 35 ; xiv. 3, 30 ; Ptol. vi. 10, 5 ; Sari. MSS. 3244.)
Hunni. Following the mOtlteS ©SCO, continued in mOTliS Ettlta;
&US, we find, in a space enclosed between these mountains and
a nameless river, which may perhaps represent the river Ottoro-
gorra of Orosius, a town called ^UCaSafriS, and further on
©CtortcirUS CibitaS, None of these can be identified with
any certainty, though the Alexandrian Eomanee mentions
Nicosar, or ISTygusar, "prince of Nynguen," and Octiatus
"Darie's odame," Darius's brother-in-law, and possibly our
cartographer may have thought it his duty to give local habi-
tations to these illustrious chiefs. (Weber, A. B. w. 2079,
p. 2081, 2273.) Just above is the inscription ^Ultttt
Sttfl^, the Huns, who are said to have proceeded from the
neighbourhood of the Caucasus. (Ptol. vi. 1 6, 8 ; Oros. i. 2
Amm. Marc. xxxi. 3 ; Isid. ix. 2, 66.)

Scythia We now come to the great region occupying the N.E.

^^^ and centre of Asia, inhabited by the Seres, and by various
■ races of semi-mythical character, comprised under the general
name of Scythians.

Beginniug at the E, we find a river, flu&iuS BottaS,
emptying itself into the sea at a place called ptotUUltC;
tOtiUttt 33ot0Uttt* These names denote the flumen Boeeum,
and the promontoeium Boeeum of Orosius, both being rather
suggestive than indicative of the unknown northern ocean,
which ^thicus mentions under the name oceanus horricus.
(Oros. i. 2; ^thic. § 31, 60.)

The river Boreas appears to rise in a range of mountains
without a name. In the space enclosed by the river, the
mountains, and the ocean, are three inscriptions. (1.) The
first expresses the sense of a passage in Pliny, followed by

ASIA. 47

Solinus, to the effect that a great part of Asia suffers from Scythia
extreme cold, and has consequently large tracts of desert ^^^

Sat*! c*fii

land, and that the Scythians inhabit the country which
reaches from the north to the beginning of the warm and
genial east. The inscription stands thus : — 3^ic itlittUtU

ortentts tstM, uii immengas esse nibes Jlarctanus et

SoUllUS iltCUTlt* Marcian CapeUa says that the Caspian Sea
pours itself into the Scythian Ocean in confinio ortus mstivi ;
and in another passage, that where the course of the Caspian
lies towards the Eastern Ocean, there are at the beginning
profundae nives, and afterwards a great desert. (Plin. vi. §§
33, 34; Sohn. 17. 1 ; Marc. Cap. §§ 665, 693.) (2.) The
second inscription, taken from Solinus, refers to a group of
islands, the inhabitants of which were reputed to live on
the eggs of sea birds : — CBotteS tttSUlaS qUt infjafittatlt

omnts (oYis) marinarum a&ium Jjibunt. (Piin. iv. § 95 ;

Mela, iii. 6 ; Solin. 19, 6.) (3.) The third inscription records
that from this point, as far as the Maeotides paludes, the
country is called by the general name of Scythia: — ^ft

\}m usque atj Jleotities palluies generalit [er] Sttljia

[Scythia] lltCttUt* The islands of the Ooeones were situate,
according to Xenophon of Lampsacus, quoted by Pliny, in
the great northern sluggish sea, which Hecatseus called the
Amalchian, and the habits ascribed to their inhabitants no
doubt resemble in some degree those of some of the northern
sea islands ; but it would be in vain to seek for any precise
equivalent to ^Otie or ^Ottee tttSUle of the Map, which Eonee
appear just opposite the first of the foregoing inscriptions, insula.
(Plin. iv. § 95 ; Solin. 19, 6 ; Tacitus, Germ. 44, 46 ; Mela,
iii. 6.)

In the same neighbourhood, viz., in the dark and frozen
ocean, lying round the shores of the unknown North, we find
other mythical islands, some of them inhabited by mythical

48 ASIA.

Bonee monsters, so long believed in by Europeans ; (1) the island of
insTile. tjie horse-hoofed men: — SjJOpolJCS (hippopodes) cpiltOS
pebeg ijafitnt J (2) that of the pfjaneSii (Fanesii), called
Auryalyn in the Alexandrian Eomance, a bat-like race,
who, whenever they covered themselves at aU, were wont to
use the membranes of their ears as wrappers : — ^{jatlfSit

memtranis aurtum suarum tegtiutur; (3) the vast island

^Ibatta, distant three days' sail from the shore of Scythia :

— ^Itratta insula est tmmeusa, ab quam trttiuo mbu

gatUr a litore .ScitljariS (Scytharum). All these are
mentioned by Pliny on the authority of Pytheas. The
last was called by him Basilia, by Phny Baltia, and by
Solinus Abalcia. The Fanesii are called by Mela and Isidore
Panoti and Panotii, All-ears. The idea may have been
suggested by the manner in which the ladies of the Uzbek
Tartar race arrange their dress, so as to present an appear-
ance of this kind. (PUn. iv. § 9 5 ; Mela, iii. 6 ; Sohn. 1 9.
6 ; Isid. xi. 3, 19, 24 ; S. Jer. Ep. 77, 8 ; Morley, p. 681.
Wood, Trav. to Source of Oxus, p. 144.)

Eeturning to the mainland, below the mountains from which

proceeds the river Boreas, there is an inscription, 5^ if jJOSt

ni&CS lottga llJSCrta, indicating the wide desert region near

the centre of Asia, to the N". and W. of China, which has

Seres, ^^en mentioned above; and below this, SctCS ptttlli ijOttttTli

(homines) post trescrta occurruitt a qtti&us serica &fstt=

Jttftlta tttittUtXtUt. The name Seres, Chinese, appears first
in Ctesias, though with little or no accuracy of knowledge
respecting them. Their silk is mentioned by Aristotle, but
the name of the people does not appear again till the time
of VirgH. (Ctes. fr. 22, p. 371 ; Virg. Georg. ii. 121 ; PUn.
vi. § 54; Mela, iii. 7; Isid. xiv. 3, 29 ; Yule, Marco Polo,
ii. 415.)

Below this comes the river BOftltatOlt, called by ^thi-

ASIA. 49

eus Beomaeon. It probably indicates one of the great Scythia..
northern rivers, but can hardly be identified with any one.
Not far from it is the city ("CljOOliSSitlta, built by Magog,
son of Japhet. An envious rent in the parchment has de-
stroyed the next word or two, but the inscription ends with
describing the nation referred to as the most cruel of all
the Scythian tribes : — 2Er6S djOOUSStme qUEttt Etiificabit

ilEagag filius lapfjet all atlje cruieltssime

grttteS Sitljarum* The city is said by iEthicus to have been
built on the heights of the OlcM, in the far north, surrounded
by the river Beomaron, between the Caspian Sea and the
!N"orthern Ocean, and further, that he himself spent a year
there. The name Olchi perhaps represents the Colchi, with
whose name the regio Golica of PHny is probably connected.
-(Ethicus says that it was besieged by Alexander for a long
time, and taken after some loss on his side. The capital of
the land of Magog is called in the Alexandrian Eomance
Taracun, and its inhabitants are described as the most bar-
barous of human beings —

" . ... that vile cotmtreye
That is y-hote Taracun." — 5970.

It was taken by Alexander with great difficulty. The legend
of the Map appears to rest upon these two stories, which may
perhaps be regarded as representing the victories of Alex-
ander over the Scythians. (Arr. Hxp. iv. ; ^thic. Ixvi. §60;
Plin. vi. § 15 ; Morley, p. 680 ; Weber, Metr. Rom. i.)

Opposite the island Albatia is a mountain, JHojtS
ilttolatlS, This may be intended to denote the barrier
mountain (moles) which obstructed the way to Taracun, of
which we shall soon hear. (Morley, p. 681; Weber, i.
6160.) Or it may represent the mountain Chelion, on
which, after offering sacrifices, immolatis hostiis, Alexander

D

50 ASIA.

Soythia. excogitated his plan of enclosure. Mons Molans would thus
be the Mount of Sacrifice.

" He took barounes mony on,
And bent to a hil cleputh Celion,
And ther, on Sarsynes wise,
Maden offering and sacrefyse."

We come now to two inscriptions which express the
substance, and in some places the words, of several passages,
more or less consecutive, in ^thiciis, describing the country
and the truculent race of Magog, and their incarceration by
Alexander. The iirst paints the horrors of the chmate, and
its intolerable cold, caused by the piercing wind called lizo.
It further states that the country is occupied by a most
vile race, given to habits of extreme barbarity, who eat
human flesh and drink men's blood — the accursed race of
Cain ; and how the Lord shut them up, through the agency
of Alexander; for an earthquake took place, and in the
king's sight mountains fell upon mountains all around them.
Where the mountains failed, he enclosed them with an im-
penetrable wall, which took him a year and four months to
bmld. Then comes a picture of the wall with four towers,
and a second inscription, to the effect that the enclosed race
are believed to be the same as the Anthropophagi of Solinus,
among whom he reckons the Essedones. They will hereafter
break out in the time of Antichrist, and carry persecution
throughout the world.

" No Cometh they thennes ay
Till hit come to domesdaye."

The text of these inscriptions stands thus: — ©ttlltia

ijorrfiilta plus qttam txttii potest % frigus intollerafiite :
omnt tempore bentus acerrimus a montilrus qttam iitcole
ftijo &ocant. I^ic sont [sunt] Jjomines truculenti nimts,

ASIA. 51

ijumatiis camitius bzsttntzs, cruorem potantes, Ulii soythia.
Caini maktiicti. f^os inclusit ©ominus per magnum
^IcxanUrum ; nam terre motu facto in conspectu prtn=
ctpis monies super monies in circuitu eorum ceciUerunt :
ufti monies Ireerani, ipse eos muro insolufiili cinxit.

Isii inclusi itiem esse cretiuntur qui a Solino ^niro=
popfjagi Utcuntur, inter quos et ^ssetiones numerantur :
nam tempore ^nticfjristi erupturi et omni munljo perse^
cutionem illaturi.

In this account the reader vnU. perceive the confused
mixture of sacred, profane, and purely legendary history.
Its sources are the Book of the Apocalypse, and the authen-
tic history of Alexander, as perverted by Eastern tradition.
The stoiy of Alexander and the wall is mentioned by S.
Jerome. It appears in the Koran, but had long before
found its way into Western Europe, and the Alexandrian
Eomance, so often mentioned, was its legitimate descendant.
The cannibal propensities ascribed to the Scythian race are
mentioned by Herodotus, and afterwards by Mela and Soli-
nus. The reader will also learn and appreciate the deriva-
tion of the word ftijO, the name for the cold N.E. wind so
acutely felt from time to time in Europe, and known in
French as the vent de Use, which our Map-maker, following
his authority ^thicus, assures us is derived from the speech
of the Mongolian race, so much dreaded in Europe in the
13th century. (Eev. xx. 2, 8, 9 ; Herod, iv. 106; Mela,
ii. 1 ; SoHn. 15, 13 ; Isid. ix. 2, 132 ; ^thic. 38, 41 ; Sale,
Kor. c. xviii. p. 247 ; Weber, vol. i. 6188 ; Morley, p. 681 ;
Diez, Lex. Etym. p. 54.)

Near the above inscription are the towns : — SereS
CifeitaS, the supposed capital of the Seric region mentioned
by Ptolemy, Julius Honorius, and Isidore, but what place
is intended by them is uncertain (Ptol. vi. 16, 8 ; Isid. xiv.

52 ASIA.

Sogdi- 3, 9; ^thic. Cosmog. p. 12 ; Yule, Marco Polo, i. 203);

ana, &c. ^aSpiS Cl&ttaS, whose equivalent may perhaps be found in
the town Heraclea, in the country of the Caspii, built by
Alexander, and afterwards called Achais (PUn. vi. § 48 ;
SoUn. 48, 4) ; and ^atlUa OJjptllUm SoflUtanOrUm, a town
mentioned by Pliny, near which Alexander erected altars to
commemorate the terminus of his expedition, but whose site
is unknown. (Plin. vi. § 49 ; Solin. 49, 3 ; Ptol. vi. 12, 4.)
Near it are the words Sogtriam tX JBacJje getlteS. The
latter, mentioned by Virgil as indomiti Dahm, lay between
Sogdiana and the Caspian Sea, and were subdued by Alex-
ander. (Curt. viii. 3, 16 ; Oros, i. 2 ; Virg. JEn. viii. V28.)
A little higher up we meet with the iuscription l^iicaitt
IjiC Ijafeitattt. The people referred to, the Hyrcani, reaUy
lived on the south shore of the Caspian Sea, and are ia fact
so placed iu the map by a duplicate entry of the name.
The cartographer has thought it right to associate them
with the sources as well as with the mouth of the Oxus :
for, just above, he has represented the Oxus issuing from a
lake, with the inscription ©XUS flubiUS.

Above the Oxus is the city Satttarcait, Samaekaot), the
Maracanda of Arrian and Ptolemy. The form in which the
name appears indicates some information from the East inde-
pendent of the sources usually resorted to by our carto-
grapher, and is the same as is found in Marco Polo, though
it could not have been derived from him. (Arr. Exp. Al. ui.;
Ptol. vi. 11, 9 ; Yule, Marco Polo i. 170.) Just below is a
figure of a pelican's nest, with the pelican wounding his own
breast to feed the young ones, who are opening their mouths
to receive the blood. The words of the superscription, pro
pulliS SCttlilO tntijt cor, express the story concerning the
pelican, which relates that the mother kills her yoimg ones
either by kisses or, as S. Augustine says, by blows, and mourns

ASIA. 53

for them during three days, after which time the male bird Hyr-
wounds himself in the breast and revives the brood with the cania.
blood which issues therefrom. It is as old as the 4th century,
and appears in the works of S. Epiphanius and also of S.
Augustine, though he by no means requires us to accept the
story as certain. It is told also by Isidore, and its aptitude
for an ecclesiastical signification doubtless caused it to be
adopted in heraldry, under the device of the "pelican in
her piety." {Hofm. Lex.; S. Aug. in Ps. ci. (cii.) 6, vol. 4, p.
1299; Epiph. Physiol. 8; Isid. xii. 7, 26; Harl. MSS. 3244;
Cahier et Martin, ii. 136.) On the left of this is a figure of
a monster, with a bird's beak and semi-human limbs, with the
superscription CtCOttf QtvXtB, a race whose name has been
applied as a description of their personal appearance. Their
proper country is Thrace, but they are mentioned by Pliny
and SoHnus as placed by some between the north and India.
(Plin. vi. § 55; SoHn. 51, 1.)

The river Oxus, having been joined by the Bactrus, which
our cartographer has perhaps confounded with the Icarus
mentioned by Phny as faUing into the Oxus, enters the
Caspian Sea, ©gtia ©Xi flxtlttttltS. This sea, according to
Strabo and others, but not Ptolemy, was an inlet from the
great Northern Ocean. (Strab. xi. p. 507; Mela, i. 2 ; Plin.
vi. §§ 36, 52 ; Sohn. 17, 3 ; Oros. i. 2 : Ptol. vii. 5, 4.) A
second inscription, referring to the mouths of the Oxus, re-
cords that the Hyrcanians live at them, and describes their
character in accordance with Solinus : — l^ircaitt ©xi flU:

minis [ostia] ][)a6ent, gens silbis aspera, feta tisriius,

COpioSa immanibUS feriS* it is not known that the
Hyrcani ever held the mouths of the Oxus ; but they held
the coast of the Caspian, not very far from the spot where
the Oxus once discharged itself into that sea, and not, as
now, into the Sea of Aral. In illustration of the abundance

54 ASIA.

Hyr- of tigers in Hyrcania, the cartographer gives a picture of

cania. that animal, with an inscription describing how the hunters

succeeded in getting away safe with the cuhs by placing a

mirror in the path of the pursuing tigress : — SigttS itStta

quum catulxtm suuvx captum jjcrcipit conctto cursu
pergequitur cum catulo fuflientem, at tile Mods equi
cursu in fugam properans speculum ei projtctt ct

U6cr Cijatlit* The speed of the tigress in her pursuit to
recover her lost cubs is described by Solinus, PHny, and
Mela. The two last tell us how the hunter is obhged
sometimes to abandon one cub, in order to escape her fury,
and secure the rest ; but they do not mention the expedient
of the mirror, which is described by S. Ambrose, and alluded
to by Claudian, and followed in the later Bestiaries. The
passage from S. Ambrose is as follows : — uhi vacuum raptce
sdbolis cuhile reperit, ilico vestigiis rwptoris insistit . at
ilk . . . eqiw vecfus fugaci videns tamen velocitate ferce sere
posse prceverti .... ubi se contiguam viderit, sphceram de
vitro projicit, at ilia imagine sua luditur et sobolem putat.
revocat impetum colligere fosfum desiderans. Claudian, speak-
ing of the Hyrcana mater pursuing the robber of her cuhs,

says,

" Jam jamque hausura profundo
Ore virum, vitresa tardatur imagine fonnse."

(Plin. viii. § 66 ; Mela. iii. 5 ; Solin. 17, 6 ; S. Am-
brose, Hexaem. vi. 4; Claudian, Rapt. Pros. iii. 268;
Cahier et Martin, Melanges d'Arch. ii. p. 140 ; Harl. MSS.
3244.

At the junction of the Caspian Sea with the Northern
Ocean are two islands, BtJCS and CrtSClilja, which it is
difficult, if not impossible to identify. Whether the former
name represents in any way the Byce palus at the head of
the Palus Mseotis, or the river Bizes, Buces, or By<MS, mentioned

ASIA. 55

by several authors, or whether it denotes the island of the Crise-
cold north wind Bizo, it is impossible to say, hut ^thicus lida.
seems to place it somewhere near the Orkneys. The island
Ceiselida, written by ^thicus Crisolida, seems to represent
the precious stones, calchirios pretiosos in modum Crisolidi,
which he describes as abounding in the island Eifarrica, and
in the Scythian region in general, (^thic. 22, 38, 39.)
Both Bizas and Criselida are mentioned in the Alexandrian
Eomance, which speaks of

" . . . al the folk of Crisolidas,
A folk of Griffayn and Besas."

Adjoining Criselida is an island entitled Cajjfj^nca, with
an inscription running thus: Stl&arUttt ijai^t COpiam.

^x% ijabttanttttm in ea in sftutentris (subvertendis) urftiftus

JStj armorum fjafiet COpiam. This is taken from the
description of the island Eifaekica by ^Ethicus, who speaks
of an abundance of wood, and describes at length the won-
derful battering engines used by the inhabitants. The name
ElFAEEiCA, in the barbarous Latin of ^thicus, or of his tran- Rifarri-
scriber, represents, no doubt, in general terms, the country of ca.
the Eiphaean Mountains, that little known and semi-mythical
region in which Mela said that the Tanais rises, and beyond
which, at the back of the north wind (ultra Aquilonem), dwell
the Hyperboreans, of whom we shall hear presently. This
region, altered by later writers to suit their own views of
mythical propriety, appears in the map, as in -i5Ithicus, in
the form of islands, of which, after Eifarrica, comes Triphicia,
with an inscription, to the effect that the natives carry on a
seafaring industry: — (J^ue [qui] in WtV^^itiU inSUla
ijabitant nauticam iulJUStriam tXtXtZVX. The name Tri-
phicia, or Tripicia, may possibly proceed from Taphrus, or
Taphrae, the name of a place on the isthmus of Perecop,

56 ASIA.

Tri- mentioned by Pliny just before his account of tbe Eiphsean
pMcia. Mountains and the Hyperborean race, ^thicus says it was
a little island in the ocean, from which Alexander obtained
bitumen for constructing his wall for enclosing the nations
of Gog ; the only island, or indeed region, in the world, he
says, which furnishes that substance —

" A clay they havetli, verrament,
Strong so yren, ston, or syment."

(^thic. 36, 37, 41, 42 ; PHn. iv. § 87 ; Mela, ii. 1, iii. 5 ;
Marc. Cap. § 664; Isid. xiv. 8, 7, 8 ; "Weber, M. B. 1. v.
6176 ; Morley, p. 679.)

Following the coast of the ocean, we come next to a
promontory, on which, as its inscription, abridged from SoU-
nus, says, the Hyperboreans dwell, happiest of human races ;
for they live without quarrelling, and without sickness, as
long as they please. They who become weary of living,
as is sometimes the case, repair to a well-known rock, and
throw themselves into the sea, thinking this the best kind

of burial :— ^|jEriJorci ut tiitit SioUnus gens ESt 6jatis=
Sima; nam sine itscortiia rt egritutito irt&unt, quam
tiitt irolunt: quiiius tetiuit hiljzxz, ie rupe nota se in
mare precipitant, illulr optimum genus sepulture arhi;

tranteS* The bliss and long life of the Hyperboreans are
described by Pindar and other early writers. Pindar, as
rendered by Gary, had sung of them thus : —

" Disease nor age approaches near
The sacred race ; nor toil they fear ;
Nor furious battle ; sheltered still
From Nemesis to work them ill."

But the optional duration of their Hfe, and their mode of
terminating it when they became weary of its length, was
introduced later, and, as it would seem, by a transfer of

ASIA. 57

a part of tlie account given by Herodotus of the Massa- Hyper-
getee (Herod, i. 216 ; Pind. Pijth. x. 46-69 ; Clem. Alex, toorei.
Strom, i. 15; PKn. iv. § 90; Mela, iii. 5; SoUn. 16,
2.) Enclosing this smOing corner of the world is a river
called fiTlttftOtl, whose name may perhaps represent the
Cyrus, but which is probably beyond identification, unless
it be a corruption of a word for a barrier or boundary of
the happy region beyond it. Next comes the Island
JKiopiat, with a nameless sateUite close by; the two, no
doubt, answering to the Meoparonitic Islands which jEthicus
is said to have visited,, and to that wondrous Isle Meopante,
between Egypt and India, which is indeed not land but
water, into which Alexander descended ; though it must be
said that -lEthicus regards this as incredible. It is described
by the Alexandrian Eomance : —

" This yle is y-hote Meopante."

The iahabitants of these islands, the Meoparonitse, were
pirates and great sailors, and in order to obtain their assist-
ance in his enterprise against the race of Magog, and pro-
cure the bitumen which their islands afford, Alexander is said
to have propitiated them with presents, and to have set up
altars, which are 'Called by his name. Accordingly, next to
MiOPAE we find the InSUla fHirafitUS, of which Alexander
is said to have gained possession only by entreaties and

hostages :— Insula mtraftiUs quam 'Mzxm'atx non nisi

per preceS tt ObsitlCS intrabit» On the shore, adjoining it,
are the %CZ 'MtXKXltiXL The foundation of this wild story
is perhaps to be sought in Arrian's account of Alexander's
siege to a strong fortress in Sogdiana, of which, after much
difBiculty, he obtained possession, not by force, but by kind
treatment of the men sent to treat with him. Eastern
tradition speaks of a rock-fortress in Bactria which was

58 ASIA.

Terra- besieged in vain by the great Iskander. The fortress men-
conta tioned by Arrian was in Sogdiana ; but this difference is of
® little importance in a legend. We come presently to the
Island Terraconta, in ■which our cartographer places the
Turks, describing them, in most uncomplimentary terms, as
belonging to the race of Gog and Magog, and addicted to
the most foul and revolting habits : — 'E'tXXUCOUta tUSUla

quam tntjahitant EurcJji tit sttrpe ©eg et Jlagog, gens
bartrara et immunUa iu&enum [juvenum] carnes et atior;

tiba mantUCaTtteS, They are described in the Alexandrian
Eomance as

The people of , . . that vfle countreye
That is y-hote Taracun.

The evil deeds with which the Turchi are here credited,
are perhaps due in some degree to the intense alarm spread
throughout Europe in the 13 th century by the invasion of
the Mongols or Tartars, of the same original stock as them-
selves, but whom they had conquered. The Turkish races
extend over a vast range of country, under various names.
Many Turks served in the Mongolian army ; a Turkish race
ruled in Asia Minor at the time that our Map was being
drawn ; and the Turks were known as the dangerous neigh-
bours of the Greek Empire. Besides this, we know that
the Ugrian or Magyar conquerors of Hungary in the 10 th
century, a race of the same Turanian stock as both Turks
and Mongols, were thought to belong to the family of Gog
and Magog, the great future persecutors of the Church.
And lastly, it may be worth mentioning that one of the
narrators of the atrocities of the Mongols, about 1243 A.D.,
was said to be an Englishman, whose tale is told by Matthew
Paris. The story of their city Taraconta, a word evidently
manufactured to suit the name of the people, its construe-

ASIA. 59

tion, and the debate wHch Alexander held with a view to Terra-
an attack upon the nation, as weU as his inability to subdue conta.
them from the inaccessible nature of their country, — all this
is described by ^thious, and represents the popular belief
of the middle ages; but the poetical romance assures us
that the Taracontes were enclosed by Alexander in the same
waU as the rest of the children of Magog, and that there
they will remain until the coming of Antichrist. One word
only need be added on the word Meoparonitse. Their
name, derived from the myoparo, a light vessel used chiefly
for piratical purposes, indicates the piratical races of the
north, whose ravages on the coast of Gaul are mentioned by
Sidonius ApoUinaris in the 5 th century, and by Isidore in
the 7th. (Cic. 2 Verr. iii. 186; Arr. Exp. iv. ; Curt. viii.
10-23; Thirlwall, Eist. of Greece, vi. 312, 343; ^thic. §§
32, 26 ; Sidon. Apoll. viii. 6, p. 473 ; Isid. xis. 1-20 ;
Morley, p. 680 ; Matth. Paris, Eist. pp. 547, 610 ; Latham,
Var. of Man, p. 61-75; Gibbon, c. Iv. vol. vii. p. 89;
Weber, i. v. 5970, 6676, 6664.) Opposite the Island
Taraconta is a triangular space enclosed by the Eiphaean
Mountaias, i^tpija^ JKotlteS, with an inscription, telling us
that this region is called ^JJtCTOpfjOtl, condemned to eternal

cold : — '^zt xt^io ^ptcropJjon Ijtcitur : rtcrnis frisortftus

Ijatttpnata [damnata]: Su6 EipflEtS mOtlttftUS. The
district here intended is the one described by Pliny and
SoUnus as Pteeophoeos eegio, a region of excessive
cold, and so called because of the feather-like snow-flakes,
which Herodotus calls feathers, and which are constantly
falling there. (Herod, iv. 7; Plin. iv. 88 ; SoUn. 15, 20.) •
In the Eiphsean Mountains the river called jflU&iUS
Itt^OtilJKS takes its rise, and runs into the Euxine Sea,
through three lagoons, on which appears the word ^a=lu=llES,
The river intended is probably the Tanais (Don), and the

60 ASIA.

Scythia. description is taken from that of Orosius. (Oros. i. 2 ;
Solin. 40-1.) Adjoining this snowy region are two figures,
one with a mace, the other with a sword, engaged in com-
bat, and an inscription, founded on Solinus, but agreeing also
in the main with Mela, as follows : — Scit|)arum QtW iU-

torius taittantium : asperior rttus: specus ittcolunt;
jjocula non ut (Essctiones tie amicis, seft tiz inimicorum
capitihus summtcs ; amaitt prelia ; occtsorum cmorem
ex faulncribus ipsis htbunt; numero cMura ijonor
crescit, quarum expertum [expertem] esse apui eos pro^

p|)aUUm est, (Solln. 15, 15 ; Mela, ii. 1.) Next come the
ScitOtaUtt ^tt|j0, ScYTHOTAUEi ScYTiLs:, who, as Sohnus
says, slay strangers as sacrificial victims : — pro JjOStttS
CelJUTtt aibetiaS. Mela caUs them Tauri, and reminds us
of the story of Iphigenia. (Solin. 15, 14; Mela, ii. 1.) Then
an inscription, much corrupted, taken from Solinus, referring
to the Satarchse who dispensed with the use of money, and so
escaped all accusations of public avarice: — CatfjatUtll [Satar-

chae] Sitlje, usu autt argeuttque tiampnato, in eternum
a puplica [publica] se afearicia iampnatierunt [vindica-

verunt]. Our cartographer has grievously marred the sense
of the passage by writing dartmavenunt instead of vindicave-
runt, evidently by the mistake of copying the portion of the
word with which the second line of its inscription ends.
Mela adds some particulars indicating the intense cold of
the climate and the unsophisticated manner of the inhabit-
ants. (SoUn. 15, 14; Mela, [ii. 1.) Nearly parallel with
the iJ^lubiUS JHeotttreS is another river, JIubtUS gUS qut
et 3LaXateS, This represents the Jaxartes, called Laxates by
Solinus, but which, as Pliny and SoHnus tell us, was called
Silis by the Scythians. It runs nearly parallel with the Oxus,
viz., from S.E. to N.W. ; but the map has given it a contrary
direction, viz., from N. to S. (Plin. vi. S 49 ; SoUn. 49, 5.)

ASIA. 61

Above the Silis is a picture of two men engaged in the ScytMa.
operation "which inverts the banquet of Thyestes, and con-
sists in cutting up and devouring the bodies of their de-
ceased parents. The inscription says that they represent
the Essedones, whose custom it was to devour the corpses of
their defunct relations: — ^SSEtOttCS Sitfje Jjic Ijaiitattt,

quorum mos est parmtum funera canttbus prosequi et
conffregatis amtcorum cetiiius corpora ipsa Ijcittiiius
laniare ac peotUum mixtis carm&us liapcs Umz, pul=
cJrrius a se quam a tineis \itc aisumi crelrmtes^ This

account of the habit of the Essedones is given by Herodotus,
and is followed by Mela and Solinus, from whom our author
has borrowed it ; but these writers add that they set the
skulls in gold, and use them as drinking-cups, as was said
of the Scythians above. Instead of this our cartographer
appends a statement, apparently of his own iavention, to the
effect that the Essedones thought their mode of disposing of
their friends preferable to allowing them to be devoured by
worms, a sense of the word tinea which is found in Claudian.
(Herod, iv. 26 ; Mela, ii. 1 ; SoUn. 15, 13 ; Claud, in
Eutrop. i. 114.)

Immediately above the Essedones and their banquet is
a picture of three men, Arimaspi, engaged in combat with a
griffin, for emeralds, as we learn from the inscription : —

CTarimaspt (Arimaspi) cum grgpfjis pro smaragtiis lii=

mtcatttt A second inscription describes the grilEfins : —

ffiriptjes, capiti&us ct alis aquilcas (aquiias) corporc Icottcs
imitantur : faolanio ftoircm portaiunt. The description of

the gryphons or griffins seems to come chiefly from Isidore,
and it answers in great measure to the accounts, more or
less credible in themselves, of the great bird called rokh
or rukh, which was said to be able to take up an elephant
in its talons. So the Bestiaries, Physiologus says, it lives

62 ASIA.

Seythia. in India, and can carry off an ox in its talons for its young
ones. It may be said, furtlier, that the people of Northern
Siberia believe in the existence of birds of enormous size ;
regarding, as they do, some of the fossil bones or horns of
animals which are so often found there as claws or bones of
birds. The story of the one-eyed race, the Arimaspians,
who fight with the gryphons that guard the gold of the
northern regions, is as old as Herodotus, who, however,
expressed strong doubt as to their having one eye only,
seeing, as he says, that people in general have two eyes.
The reader will notice that one at least of the men in the
picture has one eye, " a piercer," no doubt, in the centre of
his forehead. But since the time of Herodotus, the prize
for which the Arimaspians contended underwent a change.
In Pliny it had become precious metals in general, and in
Solinus precious stones, among which emeralds were thought
to hold the third place in value. Our author, therefore,
judiciously adopts the latest conclusion, and decides upon
emeralds. (Herod, iii. 116; iv. 13, 27; PHn. vii. 10;
Mela, ii. 1 ; SoHn. 15, 23 ; Isid. xiv. 3, 32 ; Yule, Marco
Polo ii. 349, 354; Cahier et Martin, ii. 226.) Above the
Arimaspians are the 5Eto6aSCi .Sttflf, the Ehobosci, a tribe
mentioned by Ptolemy as living east of the source of the
Volga, and by Orosius as having the altars of Alexander
within their boundaries. (Ptol. vi. 14, 9; Ores. i. 2.) Then
the SauromatC Stttje (Plin. vi. § 38 ; Mela, i. 19 ; SoHn.
15, 18), and in a triangular compartment above them the
^liaui, who are said to have grey eyes, and to see better
in the night than in the day : — ^Iftatxi pupillam glaucaitt
ijabent et plus nOCte bitient. Their peculiar eyesight is
described by Isidore, and their unclean and indecent habits
by ^thicus. They inhabited the country now called Georgia,
(PKn. vu. § 12; Solin. 15, 5; ^thic. 63, 65 ; Isid. ix. 2,

ASIA. 63

65.) On the other side of the mountains which enclose the Seythia.
Albani is a stream called JlubiuS ^rfj^tl, Acheron, running
into the Caspian Sea, and an inscription, fjtg (hie) flu&iUS

infernaln (infemahum) esse creljitur, que [cluL] flietis
[? fervens] mate (?) insrelitur, rurrens ab umirasis mon-

tifiUS, et IjtC OS gefjmne patet tit itCttUr* This is taken in
substance,. and partly in words, from ^thicus, who describes
at length the mysterious and awful river and abyss, which,
he says, is the beginning of Gehenna, and resembles the Dead
Sea in its qualities. It is situate in the dim region beyond
the Caspian Sea and the Umerosi Montes, which are stiU farther
distant. This alarming description seems to be founded on
the modest remark of PUny, that not far from the river
Sangarius, in Bithynia, i.e., on the opposite side of the
Euxine, is a harbour called Acone, famous for the plant
aconite, where there is an Acherusian cave, i.e., a cave
emitting noxious vapour. Mela, however, says more than
Pliny, viz., that there is a passage to the infernal regions
there, and that Cerberus was brought out from this cave
(by Hercules). Sohnus seems to repeat a part of the state-
ment^ of Mela, that there is a passage to the infernal re-
gions. Asia Minor, and especially Bithynia, was, and is,
a well-known seat of volcanic disturbance; and perhaps
this so-called cave of Acheron has been mixed up in
hopeless confusion with the volcanic region of Central and
Western Asia. Sir John MandeviUe seems to fix the site
near the Caspian gates, and so not far from the not extract
volcano Demavend ; for he says men call the city Cumania,
bruit at that place by Alexander, the gate of Hell. (Mela, i.
19 ; Plin. vi. §§ 4, 30 ; Solin. 43, 2 ; iEthic. 59 ; Isid. xiv.
9, 2 ; Humboldt, Cosm. i. 232 ; Somerville, Phys. Geog. i.
83, 258 ; MandeviUe, Trav. p. 257.)

Beyond the river Acheron is a figure of a monster erect,

64 ASIA.

Scythia. and holding his tail genteelly in his hand " as a gentleman
switches his cane," and the inscription tells us in dog^
Latin that the writer found here beasts like minotaurs, use-
ful in war: — ^ic inbetti ijestte Jlmotauri similes all

feclla utiles* This appears to be taken from ^thicus, whose
transcriber says of htm that he said he had actually found,
though he, the transcriber, doubts it, young minotaurs in the
deserts, and had educated them and made them useful in
war; a story which reminds us of the Jesuit fathers and
their pet unicorns. (^Ethic. 68.) Below this is the shp of
country allotted to the iKaSSagetC, and below them a some-
what larger one for the ((Hunoclji (Heniochi) ^it]ft.
(Plin. vi. § 30; Mela, i. 19 ; Sohn. 15, 19.)
Colchis. Before we pass through the Caspian Gates into Central

Asia, we must notice the country of the Colchi, Ct^olcOtUtlt
pro&iucia, and a picture of the Golden Fleece, UelUS

aureum, propter quoti Sason a ^elo (Bella) rege missus

est. The Colchian province is surrounded by a nameless
river, which may be the Phasis, which ^thicus calls Basi-
don, but concerning which it is useless to conjecture. It is
perhaps worth noticing that Trevisa, in his translation of
Higden, calls Colchos an "ilond;" and Ealph of Chester an
" He;" a notion which seems to be adopted in the Map.
(Mela, i. 19 ; Solinus, 15, 17; Higden, i. 319.)
Caspian We come now to the Caspian Gates, with an inscription.

Gates, shghtly varied from Solinus, to -the effect that they are en-
tered by a road eight miles long, and so narrow as scarcely
to be passable by a carriage :— ^Ortee Caspie aperiUtttUr

ttiitere manufecto longo octo miliariis ; nam latitutio faix

plaUStrO est permealliliS* Pliny tells us that they are
properly called Caucasian, but that the name of gates (like
the modem "ports" in the Pyrenees) was given to open-
ings in the great mountain chains in Armenia and GUicia,

ASIA. 65

as well as near the Caspian Sea. They are mentioned Caspian
by several authors, and are spoken of in the travels of Urates.
Eubruquis as the Iron Gates made by Alexander to ex-
clude the barbarians from Persia. SoHnus and Marcian
Capella inform us that in suramer the entrance is rendered
dangerous by serpents, so that they are reaUy accessible only
in winter. The pass is a very narrow and important one,
and there were gates, and- a neighbouring fortress ; but
Alexander had nothing to do with the fortification : this
idea was a subsequent one. The mention of serpents may
have arisen from the statement of Cuitius, that serpents of
large size are found in the Caspian Sea. This seems to be
the real site of the mythical enclosure of the barbarous
nations by Alexander, when, according to ^thicus, he con-
structed brazen gates of vast size, and smeared them with
bitumen from the island Tripicia. (Curt. vi. 4, 1 6 ; PUn.
V. 99; vi. 30; Ptol. vi. 2, 7, 4; SoUn. 47, 1; Orosius, 1,
2; iEthic. 40, 59, 60, 62; Trav. of Bubrnguis, in Kerr,
Voy. i. 188.)

CHAPTEE IV.
ASIA — Continued.

Asia Minor — Armenia — Media — Persia — Assyria — Mesopotamia — Syria —
Phoenicia — Palestine — Arabia — Nubia — Egypt.

The portion of Asia which remaias to be described com-
prises the countries most famOiar to the student of classical
and biblical geography, lying between the -^gean Sea in the
W. and the Indus in the E., and extending into the vaUey
of the Nile to include Egypt and ISTubia, which, in the
modern arrangement of the continents, are considered as
belonging to Africa.

The range of mountains in which the Caspian Gates are
placed is connected in the map by a western offset with
JHottSi ^TaUtttS, which is represented as being in the north
of Asia Minor, adjacent to the easterly extremity of the
Euxine Sea. From this a range is continued in the direc-
tion of Sjrria, forming the division between Asia Minor and
Armenia, and intended for the mountains of Ararat. Two
lines emanate from the extremity of this, one of which is
nameless, while the other is called ilHonteS ^arCOatraS,
the Parachoateas of classical geography, generally identified
with the range which runs N.W. and S.E. between Mesopo-
tamia and the Iranian highlands, but which was occasionally
regarded as a connecting Irak between Taurus and Caucasus,
as we learn from Orosius, i. 2. Parallel with this towards
the K is the range called JHottteg ^CrOCeraunt, which is
continued towards the S.E. in the iKHOttteS ^rtobarjoneS,

ASIA. 67

both of which, according to Orosius, are names for portions
of the great Caucasian chain. The Aceoceeaunii montbs
represent the Ceraunian branch, described by Pliny and
others as adjacent to the Caspian Sea, and which probably
belong to the true Caucasus. The mons Aeiobaezanes, de-
scribed by Orosius as dividing the Parthians from the Massa-
getae, denotes more or less definitely some part of the Indian
Caucasus, adjacent to or within the Aryan district, whose
name is represented by Ariobarzanes, possibly by confusion
with the name of the Persian Satrap who repulsed Alexander
at the Susian Pass, within or not very far from this region.
(Curt. V. 3, 17.)

Eetumuig to the head of the Eiixine, and the tltOttS Asia
STaUtttS, we find a triangular compartment, with a nondescript Minor.
figure, entitled ^itt0S, of which we can give no account.

Adjoining the Euxine, on the S., is ^aflagOttiS, and in
a compartment next to it CajjatrOCta, with C^garea Ct&ts
tag, representing Mazaca, afterwards called Gcesarm ad
ArgoBum. (SoLinus, 45, 4; Mela, i. 13.) The boundary of
Cappadocia is carried on southwards to a range of moun-
tains running N.E. and S.W., entitled, regardless of gram-
mar, JH,onte)S ^ttgee, probably the Mons Aeg^us of
Cappadocia, represented erroneously as running down to
the Mediterranean. (Solinus, 45, 4; Marc. Cap. vi. 690.)
Westward is the river PactalttS, rising in a mountain of
Htljia : the Pactolus really flows into the Hermus, but is
made here to flow into the Euxine, having been joined by
the river f^cUcS, the Meles, which Solinus calls the prin-
cipal river of Asia. The Meles is mentioned by Isidore as
near Smyrna, and he also mentions the Hylas as a river of
Asia Minor. (SoUnus, 40, 15; Mela, i. 14; Isid. xiii. 21,
21 ; xiv. 3, 43.) Possibly the name Helles may also have
some reference to the large river Halys. The mistake as

Asia
Minor.

68 ASIA.

to the Pactolus appears again in the map of Henry of
Mayence.

Beyond the mountains on the right (S.) of Lydia is a
space enclosed between the river JerttUS and the Augean
mountains, within which are the river CgtltlUS, the city
of EarSUS, and JttmUtata, which may perhaps mean
Myriandkus, on the coast of Syria, near a nameless moun-
tain range, perhaps the promontorium Ammodes of Mela.
CincirtUS sinus seems to represent the hay of Issus,
Issicus Smus, and gcotttum Ct&itaS is undoubtedly Ico-
nium, though much out of its place. (Mela, i. 12, 13;
Marc. Cap. vi. 612; Solinus, 38^ 2; Oros. 1, 2.)

Below the mountains is a list of countries, ILicaOTtta

(Lycaonia), ^^rstliia (PisiDiA), (tilitm, gsaurta (Isaueia),

and ^onia (Ionia) : this list is taken perhaps from Isidore,
xiv. 3, 38. In this neighbourhood we meet with the fol-
lowing towns : — ^nttOCl)Ct ci&ttaS, probably Antioch in
Pisidia ; (JEplj^SUS, on a nameless river, perhaps the Cays-
ter ; and on the shore of the Mediterranean a series of towns,
^ergenpanSttlS, probably Perga of Pamphylia (Acts xui.

13), Italia, Edmm (Telmessus, Soiinus, 40, 1), Histra

(Lystea, Acts xiv. 6), JKirrca (Myea, Acts xxvii. 5),
patera (Acts xxi. 1), and JSiletttS (Acts xx. 15) — all, per-
haps, intended to illustrate the travels of St. Paul. On
the other side of a nameless river, perhaps the Maeander,
is ^rienna (Priene). (Solinus, 40, 8.)

Then comes the river CKttltUS (Hermus), witli two
sources, one of which is probably intended for the Hyllus.
Near the Euxine is the figure of a lynx, who, we are in-
formed, can see through a stone wall, and who deposits a

black stone (Hinx faiUet ptx ttturos zt vxiviQit lapttiem

ntgrUttt)- This story, though scouted by Pliny, is related
by Solinus and Isidore, and repeated in the mediteval Besti-

ASIA. 69

aries, as one too good to be lost ; and the stone thus deposited . Asia
is said to be the ligurium or Lynctvrvu/m, the ligure of Scrip- ■""•^^o^-
tnie, Ex. xxviii. 19. (Plin. xxxvii. 53 ; Solinus, 2, 38 ;
^lian, Var. Hist. iv. 17; Isid. xii. 2, 20.)

Below the lynx is a boundary line, ending in a moun-
taia, with ffialatia at the other (N.) end ; S. of this line
are two mountains, in one of which rises the river ILicUS
(Ltcus), with ^raclfa (Heeaclea) near its mouth, on the
coast of the Euxine; and in the other a river entitled
fiubiuS rt laCUS iHalJ, which must mean, under some dis-
guise or other, the river Hylas. (Sohnus, 42, 2 ; 43, 1.)

Between these rivers is- the word iSutttia, meaning pro-
bably BiTHYNiA ; and on the shore of the Hellespont are Helles-
^iC0a, Calcttronta (Chalcedon), both in Bithynia, and pont.
famous for Ecclesiastical Councils, and J^icotHCtlia, On
the other (S.) side of the river Mad is BtUSiaS, Prusa,
probably the town better known as Cius, and which is
mentioned by Solinus (42, § 2) in connection with the
river Hylas, on which it stood.

Above is JHottS liitja, which perhaps means Mount
Tmolus, mentioned by Solinus as Mons I/ydioe Tmolus, but
which is described in a v. I. of the passage as li/da et tmolus.
Close by is jfrtgta inftxiOX, described by Isidore as minor.
(Isid. xiv. 3, 41 ; Solinus, 40, 10.) Next to Brusias comes
a town called ^ittCUltt ^fetlJOS, which may perhaps mean
Asiaticum, though in defiance of grammar; then ILaittSa;
CUS, l^iUuttt (probably Ilium, novum), and, lastly, S^roja
ci&itaS ftElUcoSa, — all these, rightly or wrongly, on the shore
of the Hellespont. (Phn. v. 1 24; ^thic. p. 5 2 ; Orosius, i. 2.)

Eetuming to Mons Taurus, beyond the Caspian Gates,
we find a picture of Noah's Ark, with the inscription ^rci)a
^Oe SZStSit in monttbuS ^rraent^. That the remains Armenia.
of the Ark were visible after the subsidence of the Deluge

VO ASIA.

Armenia, was the general belief down to a late period. It is men-
tioned by Josephus, S. Jerome, and others. Marco Polo
speaks of the Ark as existing on the top of a high moun-
tain. Sir John Mandeville says " men may seen it a ferr
. in clear wedre," but none of these writers assert that they
had seen it themselves, and iEthicus doubts the fact of
any remains existing. The words of the inscription are
taken from Isidore, with a little ungrammatical alteration.
(Joseph. Ant. i. 3, 6 ; Jer. de Situ, vol. iii. p. 126 (861);
PhUostorg. iii. 8 ; Yule, Marc. P. i. 44, 49 ; Mandeville,
Tmv. p. 148; Isid. xiv. 3, 35 ; ^thic. 105, pp. 54, 79.)

Beyond the Ark is ^rcatlljeS gupcrtor, which, no doubt,
stands for Armenia the Greater, according to the division
mentioned above by Isidore, but for the word Arcandes we
cannot account with certainty. The other division, ^ttttJIlia
itltoiot, appears on the other side of the mountains.

"Within the compartment formed by the Acroceraunian
and Parcoatras mountains is ^DljiiCttS, representing pro-
bably the Iberia of Orosius, with a " thought also of the
Tibareni — no very distant neighbours. (Mela, iii. 5 ; ^thic.
70, p. 54.) Upon the range of Parcoatras is a city
^ritlBttia, which perhaps represents Artaxata.
Tigris. At the point where a range of mountains, probably the
Elegos of Solinus, almost meets the Parcoatras, is the source
of the Tigris, EigriS flubtUS Et lacUS, which shortly falls
into a lake called in the map ^tttUSa ILacUS, though the
name Tigris is also applied to it in the above inscription.
This lake is no doubt the lake Wan, Aretisa of Solinus,
Arethusa of PUny. (Plin. vi. 127; SoUn. 37, 5, 6.)
Following loosely the descriptions of these authors, the
Tigris seems to pass under or through a mountain, and to
disappear, and , then emerging from it, to take the name of
COTTCitUS, a name which appears to proceed in a confused

ASIA. 71

-way from the descriptions of Pliny and Solinus, who say Tigris.
that from the point where the current becomes swifter
the river takes the name of Tigris, which means "an
arrow." The words are unde concitatur, a celeritate Tigris
incipit vocari. (Phn. vi. 127 ; Solin. 37, 5.) It soon joins
another stream springing from two heads in Mount Caucasus,
fluijtUS ^rarn, and fiu&mS I^UtfjUS. At some distance
from their junction is a stream which appears to connect
the Indus with the Tigris, bearing the name flubtUS
fJ^CCljarUtlt. The river Aram no doubt denotes the Akbis,
for which name a v. I. Aeaeim is given in Isidore. The
Arbis, or rather Arabis, is a river of Gedrosia. For Nuthus
and Hecdar no satisfactory explanation suggests itself, unless
the former stands for the Aduna, a river of Susiana, and the
latter be thought to represent the Icarus, a river flowing into
the Oxus, for which a v. I. has Achrum, or one of the canals
connecting the Euphrates with the Tigris. (Plin. vi. 52,
120, 135; Xen. Anab. 1, 7; Isid. xiv. 3, 8.) Below the
junction of the Hecdarum the river for some distance is
called ^Tigris, and finally (BllSCUS, probably a misnomer
for EuL^us, which joias the Tigris at a short distance from
its mouth. (Phn. vi. 137; Solin. 33, 4)

In the space between Hecdarum and the fluvius Ararn
is a town entitled 3£lageS Ct&ttaS ilEetrorum, mentioned
probably from its occurrence in the book of Tobit. (Tob. i.
14; iv. 20; ix. 2.)

Beyond the river Hecdarum is an inscription — ^JHclia, Media,
^erStoa. Then the foUowing — ©mtttS MfUm, Partl)ia, Persia.

^ersitia, ai ortente flumim ^nUo, aft occiUente Etgrt, a
scptentrtone Eauro Caucasio, a ratxMt Eu6ro mart
longitutimc patent tretiectes il pass, p, (patent) lati=

tUiine SCTOSHT TMs is taken, with some variations,

V2 ASIA.

Media, from Pliny. The form Persida is found in Orosius and
Persia. Isidore. (Plin. vi. 137; Oros. i. 2; Isid. xiv. 3, 11.)

Below this we find an inscription^ which is taken, with
some blunders, from Orosius, i. 2, to the effect that the
above countries are mountainous and rugged : — ©tltttES \jtZ

regtones situ terrarum montuoso (?) stbe asjicro^

Beyond Media is Peesida, and near this the inscription

^crsipoUs capulr H^exsici xtUQui a ^crseo rcge coit=

SttUCta, with a figure of the city below. The inscription is
taken in substance from Isidore, xv. 1, 8. Then come the
river ^USa and ^USa CtijitaS* The name of the river is
taken from Isidore, xv. 1, 10, or from ^^ithicus; but as
there was no river of this name, the Choaspes is probably
meant. (Isid. xv. 1, 10; ^thic. p. 18.)

Next comes the inscription Hamitf (Elamitse) prttlCtpeS
^^tSilliS, from Isid. ix. 2, 3, and the river ©altlia, which
perhaps represents the Balierus of Solinus, which PHny calls
Icarus, and Mandeville the Balay ; but this river flows not
into the Indus, but into the Oxus. PHny and Ptolemy
mention a little river Baras, which flows into the Persian
Gulf. (Plin. vi. 52, 110; Ptol. vi. 8, 4; Solinus, 19, 4;
Mandeville, p. 211.)

Then come Carmaitta regto, and gcusta opptium

UOftilC* It is difficult to account for this latter name ; the
only town of note in Carmania was Harmuza ; but this is
not noticed by any of the authorities whom our cartographer
usually consulted.

Close to the Persian Gulf is '^tltjrijJOltS, probably
Alexandeopolis, the town of Parthia mentioned by Pliny,
vi. 113, and as Alexandria by Solinus, 54, 2.

Between the two mouths of the ((EUSCUS (the EuL^us),

is Carax oppttmm pictsstmts inttmum, which no doubt

stands for Pliny's description, Charax oppidum Fersici sinus

ASIA. 73

intimum. The town meant is Charax Spasinu, in Susiana, Media,
between the mouths of the Tigris and Eulaeus. (Ptol. vi. 3, Persia.
2; Plin. vi. 124, 138.)

Eeturning to the source of the Tigris, we find on its left
bank ciijitaS ^iXli^U, and higher up the inscription ^art|)ia

a6 InitE finitius generalttcr iicitur usque ati fiesopo;
tamtam. .Sont Csunt) m m ^racusia, tPartljia, ^ssiria,
ilHctiia, ^ersitia. Sunt in ea xbiti. regna : a Utore Sctt{)a=
rum ugque at mare ruftrum WMEm passuum. This is

taken from Isidore, and founded on PUny. (PUn. vi. 137;
SoHn. 55, 1; Isid. xiv. 3, 8.)

Beyond this we have a town and the words ^ggirta

iicttur ab ^ssur filto Sem. qui Jane regionem primus

incoluit, taken from Isidore, and founded on Gen. x. 11, 22 ;
and below this, between two converging lines, ^tliafteni
primi ^Siriorum, which expresses the meaning of Solinus,
46, 1 ; Plin. vi. 41 ; and Marcian Capella, vi. 691.

Below this are two streams, which join the Euphrates
shortly above Babylon. One of these, entitled Jlu&iUS
roa"!JUS, connects the Euphrates with the Tigris, and thus
seems to represent one of the various canals which crossed
the plain at this point; but as to the name Wadus we can
offer no suggestion. The other stream is designated CorarUS,
which may possibly be intended for the scriptural Chebar, a
name for which there were various forms in classical geo-
graphy — Chaboras, Aborrhas, and Aburas. The Euphrates
itself, ^ufrateS fiu&iUS, is represented as rising in the
Acroceraurdi Montes and flowing into the Persian Gulf

In the space between the last river and the source of the Meso-
Tigris is fEcSOpOtamia, in which are SamOSafta cibitaS, potamia.
Samosata, which was not in Mesopotamia, though on the
Euphrates, and IBafjaiS cibitaS, but what place is intended
by the latter is not certain ; perhaps Daras, a fortified town

74 ASIA.

Meso- of Mesopotamia, mentioned during the late wars between
potamia. ^j^g Greek Empire and the Persians. (Photius, Biblioth. 63,
65.) Between the Wadus and Corarus is 0iStftt CtbttaS,
ISTisiBis, placed incorrectly on the Euplirates. The rivers
Abana and Pharpar, WdWOM. and SdXtSX, the two rivers so
well known in connection with the history of Naaman (2 Kings
V. 12), are made to fall into the Euphrates. Between the
Euphrates and Tigris comes SDutttS 3Sa6^l, and a long ia-
scription concerning Babylon, taken chieiiy from Orosius,

which may be read thus : — Babilottta a ^emtirocl) gigaute
funiata ; a i^rno ti Seramilie reparata ; campi planitte
uniitque conspicua; ttatura loctlE&issima (isetissima, Oros.);
cagtrorum facte tnmtius paribus per quatrum titspostta,
ilEurorum latttuto % cuftttorttm, ejus altituio pater
tanta. ^mftitus urbis 3L3tl3iEE miliaria circumplecitur,
ilHurus coctile late (coctiii latere) atque interfuso bitumine
compactus. JFossa extrinsecus late patens bice amptiis
(amnis) ctrcumfiuit, % txmXz murorum ceute (centum)
porte eree (serese). Epsa autem latitubo in consumma=
tione pinnarum utrcque latere Ijabitaculis eque (^que)
bispositis bicenas quabrigas in mebio capit. (Oros. ii.

6; Isid. XV. 1, 4; Curt. v. 1, 24, 26; SoHnus, 56, 1.)

A little more to the right is terra BabiloniC, with a
tower, the Tower of Babel (Gen. xi, 5, 9). Above the
words Euphrates fl., is a sort of battlemented frame, with
a head, and the inscription f|ur Ijabct Ct patria Ct Calbca.
The figure within the frame probably represents the Patriarch
Abraham, and there is a reference no doubt to Ur of the
Chaldees, but the grammatical structure of the sentence is
not apparent. Nearer to the Euphrates is the word ^UbC;
jjlOn i-^- Arabia the Happy, and upon the river a large town
called CarcanUS CifaitaS, which perhaps represents Carche-
mish, which is described by the Vulgate of 2 Chr. xxxv. 20,

ASIA. 75

as Charcemis juxta Euphraten. (Plin. vi. 138 ; Solinus, 33, Meso-
5 ; Oros. i. 2.) On the other side of the Euphrates we have Potamia.
fi. ILaife, ruiuiing into that river ; but what river is intended
is uncertain. Beyond this is a representation of the Pepper
forests, StlbaS JJtper^aS, which have been noticed before,
page 39, and which are placed by Higden in Arabia. Near
this is an inscription releating to Teman : — ©tlttxiS \iZZ
Xtgia aUStraliS Efjeman trtCttUr, the S.E. portion of Arabia,
mentioned by Amm. Marcell, xxiii. 6 ; in Jer. xltx. 7 ; and
other passages of Scripture.

We now return to Armenia Inferior, just below the Ark, Armenia
and we find JBecUSa, *.e. Dascusa, called in the Itinerary Inferior.
Dacusa (Plin. v. 83, vi. 27; Oros. i. 2 ; Antonin. Itin.
209, 3); and f&,tXivX3,, which name .probably represents
the city Melitene or Melitina, a town from which came the
name of the Eoman legion, called the " thundering legion,"
mentioned by Euseb. v. 5. Pliny places it in Cappadocia, but
Ammianus Marc, in Armenia Minor, and calls it Melitina.
(Solinus, 4:5, 3 ; Amm. Marc. xx. 8 ; Bingham, Ant, vol. iii.
95.)

Below this is a nondescript creature called ^TtgolopCS or
SKgolopCS, with webbed feet, and a tail, holding in its hands
an article which may be said to be something between a
thyrsus and a parasol, which it is tenderly regarding with
uplifted gaze; but what creature is intended does not
appear.

Beyond this, to the right, is an animal with curling
horns, representing the mythical honacus of Phrygia, with a
description taken almost verbatim from Solinus — In Jrigia

nascttur animal qui iicitur bonnacon. (fTaputi tauriuum,
ju6a equina, cornua multiplici fiexu, profluijio citi tm-
tris fimium eflerit per longttuUinem trium jugerum,
cttjus arKor quiccit (Vid ^^^^) attigerit aUurit, (Hin.

V6 ASIA.

viii. 40; Solinus, 40, 10.) In the picture the latter part
of the description is represented as in lively action.
Syria. Above this creature we find S>ixm, SoiaS, and Sppamtta

CtbttaS* Of these names Sobas indicates the kingdom of
Zobah (Vulg. Soba, 1 Sam. xiv. 47 ; 2 Sam. viii. 3, x. 6) ;
and Appamna stands for Apamea in SjTia (SoHn. 40, 7 ;
Isid. XV. 1, 15.) Beyond is fitomagena (Solin. 37, 1 ; Isid.
xiv. 3. 17), a district of Syria.

Eeturning to the left, we find, next to the monster
Ugolopes, ^nttOCfjia Ct&itaS, Antioch of Syria, placed upon
a river which in the Map is called flu&tUS ^ZXnUS. This
latter name is difficult to explain : Antioch reaUy stood on
the Orontes, but the course assigned to the Fernus on the
Map places it rather in the position of the Pyramus. A
somewhat similar mistake occurs in the map of Henry of
Mayence, where it is named Tednus. On the bank of this
river stands MoNS Casius, with an inscription referring to
its height, which was much exaggerated by classical geo-
graphers : — Jlons ffiasstus tiz quo btictur gloiius solts
atifjuc quarta ijigilia noctis. (Piin v. 80; Soiin. 36, 3.)

Just above this is ^{)entciS probmcta, Phcenigia, and
near it ffloUS %iiimU8, In Phoenicia is 3Laotliciam,
Laodicea of Syria, on the sea coast, not rightly in Phoenicia ;
^rcijaS, referred to in Gen. x. 1 7, and mentioned by Isid.
ix. 2, 24; Itin. 148; and Itin. Sieros. 583, 2 (see also
Travels of "Willibald, Early Trav. p. 14) ; then a nameless
town, which may be Aradus, mentioned by Isidore in the
same article as Archas ; and then the foUowiag places : Kxi-
JJOUS, 33erttXlS, and, very much out of its place, ^carOlt,
which last stands for Ekron (Josh. xv. 11), where the Vulg.
has Accaron. (Hieron. de situ, vol. ii. p. 869 (146); Bing-
ham, Ant. iii. pp. 70, 205.)

Just beyond Acaron comes in the mountain range of

ASIA. 11

3Li6atXUS, following which, upwards, we come by a bend to Syria.
JHonS ®alaaut!), Mount Gilead, which is called in 1 Mac.
V. 9, 17, and elsewhere, G-alaad and Galaaditis, on the east
side of the Jordan. Upon Mount Gilead, greatly out of its
place, is IBatHaSCUS* From its extremity rises tOrtJttS
3Iab0tij, the brook Jabbok, or, as it stands in the Vulg.
Jeboc, running into the Jordan.

Just above this is ^tttOUltC, denoting the territory of the
Ammonites, of which the Jabbok was the boundary. (Deut.
iii. 1 6) ; and near it a nondescript animal, entitled |HatSOlt
6eStta tranStnUtata* it has two webbed feet, and two with
toes or claws, a formation which justly entitles it to the
epithet transmutata ; but what creature is intended, whether
a chamseleon, or the animal called by Pliny tarandrus and
by Solinus parandrus, which changes its colour at pleasure,
but which they say has horns, it is not easy to say. (PHn.
viii. 124, ix. 85; Solin. 30, 25.)

ISTear this is JKoallite and ^etta ri&itaS ^tabt, the
city of Petra. (Plin. vi. 144; Bing. iii. 61.) Near this,
fluijiUS 'l^rttOtt 0t CibttaS, the town Aboee, and river Aenon.
Pent. iv. 48 ; Josh. xii. 2.) Then mOttS &tix (Gen. xxxvi.
8), TOOnS JFaSga, Mount PiSGAH (Deut. iii. 27, iv. 49), and,
on the other side of the Arnon, a female figure, very forlorn-
looking, with the words uxor 3Lot!) tttutata in petram

salts (Gen. xix. 26), and mOttS ^ftamU, mount Abakim
(Numb, xxvii. 12).

Eeturning to Mount Libanus, we find the double source
of the Jordan, foTtS Kor, Joe, and fottS ©att, as was an-
ciently believed to be the case. (Isid. xiii. 21, 18; see
Eobinson, Bibl. Bes. iii. 412.) The river expands itself into
the Sea of Galilee, VXWCe <3'K\iltt, and after receiving the
brook Jabbok, ends in the Dead Sea, ^WCZ iWortUUttt,
having on its surface SotlOm C, and ©omor C, In the

V8 ASIA.

region between the river and Mount Gilead is ©ecapoltS
regiO a tecem cibitatiiUS tlicta. The towns are repre-
sented, but no names given.

We now enter the Holy Land itself, and below the
source of the Jordan is an inscription a JBatX USqUC alj

aSeersaftee cm passuum longitulitnc, which appears to

be taken from S. Jerome. (Hieron. ad Bard. Ep. 129, vol.
i. p. 1134 (972).) Then come (Cesam ^fltUpt, Caita
©alito, and a boundary line running down to an angle
with the mountains. At the opening between this angle
and monS ffiarmElUS is EtrUS, Tyee ; and in the tribe of

©an, Efjolotttatlra, Ptolemais, lope, Joppa, and IB tog;

polls, formerly Lydda, one of the places visited by S. Paula.
(Hieron. Ep. 108, 8, and Ep. 129; Anton. Itin. 150,
3.) SatUptlta follows : Pliny says that two places bear
this name. The Itinerary mentions Jamnia, and the Peu-
tinger Table both this and Joppa. Jamnia is mentioned in
1 Mac. X. 69. It answers to Jdbneel. (Josh. xv. 11 ; Phn.
V. 68; Ptol. V. 16, 2; Ant. Itin. 150, 4.) Then come
^SCalOtX Ct&itaS, and ^CtUa, which perhaps answers to
Azotus. (Acts vui. 40.) Eeturning to the tribe of Dan,
we find next to it '^StX, and within its enclosure J^OtltTt,
famous in Maccabsean history. (1 Mac. ii. 1 ; ZuaUardo,
Viagg. p. 248.) Next to this is the half tribe of Manasseh,

iimiljta triftus JHanassc, containing mons ®f raim, placed

rightly enough. Between this and Asher are the names
Ealiulon and ^gSacar, and in the portion so named

mons Ea&or, with fl, torrens Cison (Kishon) flowing

from it, a connection suggested by comparison of Judg. iv.
12 with V. 21, and not incorrect in fact. (Hieron. Ep. 108,
13, de situ, p. 887 (187); Judg. iv. 12, Vulg.)

Above Mount Tabor is Nazarbt and jlHalJtan, What
place is intended by the latter is not clear, but it may per-

ASIA. 79

haps be intended for the land of Madian, mentioned in Palestine.
Judith ii. 25, as a name belonging to Palestine, though de-
noting the region properly called Midian.

Eetuming to the boimdary line of the tribe of Judah
we find terra lulja, with Betijel at the left (JST) extremity
of it, and at the right (S) 33rtf)lfEltt, pictoriaUy depicted
so as to represent the birthplace of our Lord, containing,
as it seems, a bed. To the right (S) of this is Cuja, G-aza,
which is spelt Caza in. a. v. I. of the Itinerary {Itin. 151,
2) ; and @grara, which, from its situation, is probably
Gerar (Gen. xx. 1), called Gerara in 2 Chr. xiv. 13, where,
in later times, there was a famous monastery. It is men-
tioned by S. Jerome as the metropolis of Palestine, and is
here represented as within ^alSttftiattt* (Hieron. de situ,
p. 898 (215).)

Above these, in a circular form, is the city of Jerusalem, Jerusalem
Ctbitag SerUSaletIt, placed as the centre of the world (see
Introduction, p. xxii., and Isid. xiv. 3, 2 1), with lUOtXS ffl^al=
baric, and a figure of our Lord on the Cross, which bears
the " title," on which may be indistinctly read ^ajarrtlj*
South of this is balUS SoSapJ), the vaUey of Jehoshaphat ;
above it JHottS ©It&rtt, and above this again Salem, <StIe,
and Safeaa, the first of which is no doubt Shalem, near
Sichem (Gen. xxxui. 18), said by S. Jerome to be the place
of which Melchizedek was king ; Sile is probably Shiloh,
and Sabaa probably stands for the Convent of St. Saba, not
far from the Dead Sea. (Hieron. Ep. 73, 7 ; 108, 13 ; Vit.
S. Hilar. 27 ; Pabri, Evagatorium ii. 147 ; Zuallardo, Viagg.
p. 275 ; Eobinson, Bes. i. 382.)

Above is mOTlS Carif or CattJ, Mount Geeizim, and
ttlOttS ©efial. Mount Ebal, which is given as Gebal by S.
Jerome. (Deut. xxvii. 4, 12 ; Hieron. de situ, vol. ii. p. 899
(219).

80 ASIA.

In a line with Sabaa is Jbeicho, with the inscription,

UiSque at cifaitatem Serico iuceftat ilogses pupiilus

(populum) EstaeL To this point a track may he seen,
reaching to a town in Egypt, hereafter to be mentioned,
which represents the path of the Israelites from that country.
Below Jericho is (B\lXOn CiJjltaS, Hebeon, and on the
right (S) ctbitaS .Saracena, either Kedar, of which S. Jerome
speaks as being in the coimtry of the Saraicens, or Zoi-ah, the
birthplace of Samson, called by S. Jerome Saraa. (Hieron.
Co7n. in Ezek. xxvii. 21 ; vol. v. p. 258 (318) ; in Jud. xiii.
vol. ix. pp. 378, 533 ; Joseph. Ant. v. 8, 12 ; Judg. xiii. 2 ;

xvi. 31.) Then flubius ^spala : 'M ferrum natat et

pluma mergttUr, This denotes the lake Asphaltitis, of
which Phny and Solinus say that nothing will sink in it,
while Mela speaks of leaves sinking ia it. (Plin. 5, 72 ;
Solinus, 30, 11 ; 35, 2 ; Mela, iii. 9 ; Isid. xiii. 19, 3 ; 13, 6.)

Opposite to the Valley of Jehoshaphat is JltOttS ®£l6O0 ;
near it puteUS juratttcnti, " well of the oath," and above it
iSetSaJjCC Ct&itaS, the former representing the famous well
of Beer-Sheba, the other the town which existed in S.
Jerome's time, and of which extensive ruins are stUl to be
seen. (Hieron. de situ, vol. iii. pp. 915, 930 (258, 294);
Tristram, Topog. of Holy Land, p. 22.)

Below this is a bird entitled a&tS CtonUS. What bird
this is, or why it is placed in this region, does not appear.
The cinnamolgus, said by Pliny and Solinus to be an Arabian
bird, which feeds on cinnamon, may perhaps be conjectured.
(PHn. x. 97; Solinus, 33, 15; Isid. xii. 7, 23.)

Above Beersheba is 3^atltata ciij., probably Eamah,
called by Josephus Eamatha. (1 Sam. i. 1 ; Joseph. Ant. v.
10, 2; Early Trav. p. 5.) Then f^CtSlira Ctb., probably
Elusa, in Idumea, which is the same as Shur. (Gen. xxv.
18 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7 ; Ptol. v. 16, 10.) Just above is JKottS

ASIA. 81

©rc6, and below 3£ltTlOCerura Ctlj. tt fixtb., the river and Jerusalem.
town of Ehinocorura. The river is called Sihor in Scrip-
ture, and also " river of Egypt." The place is mentioned in
Josh. xiii. 2, and is now El-Arish, and the stream is Wady
el-Arish. It is made to rise in a mountain, and fall into the
Mediterranean. (Plin. v. 68; Ant. Itin. 151, 4; Hierpn.
de situ, iii. 920, 933 (271, 298); Com. in Esai. xxvii. 12 ;
vol. iv. 312 (368).) On the south side or left bank of
the river, is an inscription '^tt tttatiS littgua Irt&tllit
^gtptum rt ^aleStmam, which represents the account of
Pliny, V. 68.

Passing beyond the Dead Sea, in the track of the Israel- Arabia.
ites, we find a crowd of figures, with the superscription
SulJCt, and a sort of ribbon, on which might be supposed to
be inscribed their prayer to the idol before which they are
kneeling. The idol represents no doubt the golden calf, but
has above it ilHafjUTIt, which, in aU probability, stands for
Mahomet, whose name, under the form Mawmet, became, by
a misrepresentation natural enough, but very incorrect, a
general name in mediaeval languages for an idol. (Nares,
Glossary, and Yule, Marco Polo, i. 174.)

Above this is JHotlS Sttiag, and near it IJlogSCS, with
one of the tables of the Law, inscribed, in mediaeval fashion,
with a cross : he is represented as in the act of receiving
the "tables of the covenant," ta6ul0 tCStamEtttt, from the
hand of Jehovah. Above him come JHaiiatl (Midian, Gen.
XXV. 2, 4), and .Safia, a name probably due to Ps. Ixxii. 1 0,
with which passage the mention of the silvce piperece, men-
tioned above, is probably connected. Then JHOTXS CaSStUS,
Mons Casius, properly on the border of Egypt, near the
Mediterranean ; and beyond it ^rafiica IJCiSErta* (Plin. v.
65 ; Solinus, 33, 3 ; Mela, 1, 10.)

Passing to the right (S.E.) side of the Indian Ocean, we

F

82 - ASIA.

Nubia, find at the top |$lOtlS ^tliettS, the burning moimtaiu, placed
by Pliny in Ethiopia, and called by the Greeks, he says,
Thion ochema, from which it is four days' voyage to the
western horn of Africa. (Plin. vi. 197 ; Mela, iii. 9.) Below
is oppitium ^iftie (Nubise), which, perhaps, may represent
the town Tenupsis, mentioned by Pliny, vi. 192. Kext to

this fillet gens iSitrte (Bt])io^z8 Cljttsttam amicisstmi.

This represents the Ethiopians or Abyssinians, who had been
converted to Christianity in the 4th century through the
preaching of Frumentius. (Socr. Mst. i. 19; Soz. ii. 24;
Cosmas Indie, iii. p. 179; Athanas. Apol ad Const, c. 31,
vol. i. p. 250.)
Nubia and Near this is JialuS fottS ^ili, the unexplored lake,
Ethiopia, -^yhich was the supposed source of the Nile, and below it the

inscription fgic locus Utcitur Mo^st it zst aquE ortus,

which perhaps refers to Ex. ii. 10, transferring the meaning
of the name Moses to the source of the river itself, from
which he was rescued. (Phn. v. 51, 55 ; Solinus, 32, 2, 11 ;
Mela, iii. 9.) Near this is a portal, with gates, in a range
of mountains, entitled tltOttteS ^ihie* -The mountains are
perhaps those mentioned by Phny, as being near the ocean,
and the portal perhaps denotes the position of the Cataract.
In the Peutinger Table the mountains are placed near a
marsh, j^er quam Wilus transit. (Plin. v. 51, 54, vi. 189,
194; Solinus, 32, 2.)

Taking the left bank of the NUe (S. and right hand in

the Map), we come to Jlonastetta .Sancti ^ntonti in tit-

SertO, with two churches, and a figure with the word ZoSimaS
above it. These are the famous monasteries of St. Antony,
described by Socrates and Sulpicius Severus, who says that
he visited them. An account of Zosimas is given by Eva-
grius. (Socr. H. E. ir. 23 ; Sulp. Sev. Dial. i. 19 ; Evagr.
iv. 7; Butler, Lives of Saints, i. 446.)

ASIA. 83

Near Zosimas and the Nile there is a picture of a Wutoiaand
creature with the head of a bird, but furnished with horns, Ethiopia.
hoofs for feet, and holding a club in its hands ; and near
it the inscription Satitli, which are described by a Bestiary
as mofistruosi, and by Isidore as beings well known to S.
Antony. (Mela, i. 4; Isid. xi. 3, 21 ; Harl. MSS. 3244.)
Below the satyr is Sol, a star representing the sun, placed
here perhaps to mark the supposed point of the tropic of
Cancer (Plin. ii. 183; v. 56), and just below an interest-
ing creature shading itself from the sun, just now mentioned,
with its lip. Others, as we have seen, use their feet as
parasols ; this person turns his somewhat exuberant under-
Hp to good account in this service : — ffifttS • laliro ptO=

mimntt untrc si6t factem obumlirans all soltvx. This

is taken, with much alteration but no improvement, from
Isidore. (Isid. xi. 3, 18.)

On the opposite side of the mOttteS ^tljiopic alttS= Egypt.
SiVXt is a picture of the Sphinx, with an inscription forming
an hexameter verse : — SpfjittX afaiS ZSt JJCtttta, SerjJEnS pclJC,
frOTttC purila, reminding us of Ausonius's description : —

" Sphinx volucris pennis, pedibus fera, fronte puella.''

Auson. Idyll, xi. 40 ; Plin. vi. 184.

Between the Sphinx and the Nile there is a picture of a
centaur grasping what looks like a serpent, with the super-
scription, Jaunt Semi=Ca6alli homines, rauns and centaurs
were originally distinct mythological beings, but in later times
they came to be associated, and thus the teim faun is used here
for a centaur, which formerly it could not have been. The
word semi-cdballus appears to be formed on the same prin-
ciple, though in an inverse direction, as the classical words
semivir, semihos, etc., but when it came into use we are unable

84 ASIA.

Egypt, to say. Adjacent to the Sphinx, we have tUttiS ijcl CibitaS

Siene ; then Stmee Qtnits, and ^uteus solis multum

alimiraitltS, the tower and celebrated well of Syene, in
which it was believed that the snn at the time of the solstice
cast no shadow at mid-day. (Ezek. xxx. 6 ; Plin. ii. 183 ; v.
59; vi. 178; Strabo, ii. 133 ; xvii. 817; Solimis, 32, 16.)

Below this is a town, ^atitialier cibitas trraconihtts plena,

which may perhaps be Napata, a town lq Egypt, or rather
perhaps of Ethiopia, which was the metropolis of Candace,
and at which S. Matthew is said to have suffered martyr-
dom. The dragons are perhaps only a feature characteristic
of the country in general. Phny mentions a race, the
Candei, no very distant neighbours to the place now before
us, who made serpents their usual food. (Plin. vi. 169, 182 ;
Ptol. iv. 7, 19 ; Strabo, xvii. p. 820 ; Cave, Zives of Apostles,
i. 178.)

Eetuming to the district between the upper part of the
NUe, where it passes through the Nubian mountains and the
Eed Sea, we find, on the shore of the latter, the following
towns :— CTatfjinna JlOrtUS tt cibitas, probably Tacona of
the Itinerary, spelt hi a. v. I. Cacona (Ant. Itin. 157, 1) ;
cibitas Berenice, the well-known port on the Eed Sea
(Phn. V. 31, vi. 103; Solia. 54, 7; Isid. xiv. 5, 5);
HaureUtlt portUS, which, as Santarem suggests, may repre-
sent the street or quarter of Alexandria called Laura, whose
name was the origin of the name laurae, given to monastic
cells in the East (Athenaeus, xii. 57, p. 541; Epiph.
haeres, 69; Evagr. E. E. i. 16; Bingham, Ant. ii. 246);
©ajera cibitas, mentioned by S. Jerome; and ^PelliciC,
which probably denotes the district of Pelusium. (Hieron.
de sitit,,-p. 992, 226; Plin. v. 49; Solin. 33,23.) Near
this is a breach in the Eed Sea, marking the passage of the

Israelites : — Eransitus filioruttt Israel per iWare Eu6=

ASIA. 85

rum, and below this pjjiarOtSi (Pi-hahiroth) (Ex. xiv. 2 ; Egypt.
Numb, xxxiii. 1), and ^bitJOS, (Plin. v. 60; Solin. 32,
41; Ant. Itin. 158, 4.)

Near this is a picture of the Phoenix, with the inscrip-
tion: — ^{jenix abis: \)tt quingetis (quingentis) fatbit
annis : est autcm unica abis in orfte. This description,

founded on Pliny and Solinus, seems to be taken from
Isidore. The golden ring round the neck is carefully re-
presented ; the aige is taken from the same authority, though
Pliny, who is sceptical on the whole matter, gives this
at 509 instead of 500; and his statement that the mar-
vellous bird migrated from Arabia to Egypt accounts for
its position in the Map. (Phn. x. 4 ; Solinus, 33, 11;
Isid. xii. 7, 22; Epiph. Physiol, c. 11; Cahier et Martia,
Melanges dU ArcMologie, ii. 182.)

Eetujrning upwards we have 2D|)e6aitia tegtO, dear to
mediseval recollection for its monasteries in the early times ;
and ^tljOlomagtia CitrttaS, on the Nile, which Strabo calls
the largest city in the Thebaid. (Strabo, xvii. 813; Plin. v.
61 ; Snip. Sev. Dial. 130 ; Isid. xiv. 5, 5 ; Ant. Itin. 158,
3.) A Little below this the Nile expands itself into two
branches, surrounding the island Mbeoe, fSizXtiZ IttSula, on
which there is a representation of a crocodile, CocaljilUS,
bestridden by a man, a picture which probably refers to Pliny
and Solinus describing the habits of the people of Tentyra,
or perhaps to the description of the cokadrille in the
Alexandrian Eomance : —

" He is strong, and of gret valoiir,
Erode feet lie hath four."

And again :-

" He beareth at ones, there he is good,
Ten men over the flood."

86 ASIA.

Egypt. Thus does history reprodace itself, and the exploit of Mr.
Waterton in the 19th century is anticipated in the 13th.
(Plin. viii. 92 ; Solinus, 32, 27 ; Weber, Alex. Bom. i. 6597 ;
6608.) Two affluents are represented as joining the Nile
on its left bank, opposite the isle of Meroe, namely the
^IStaiUS and the ^Stoiora, These are intended for the
AsT^iPUS or JBlue Nile, and the Astaboeas or Tacazze, which
latter joins the Nile at Meroe, while the other lies higher
up. Both streams join the Nile (it is almost needless to
remark) on the right bank.

In the space between the main stream of the Nile and
the Eed Sea is tltOttS ^P^lOrUttt, which we are unable to
identify. Below this come JKagljalUttt Ci&ttaS, Migdol,

(JHtJjam ct&ttas, and Socfjotlj cibitas, Succoth (Vuig.

Sochoth.) (Ex. xii. 37, xiii. 20, xiv. 2; Numb, xxxiii. 7;
Ant. Bin. l7l, 3.)

Below this is a city with the superscription f^ic COtl=

gregattts jiojuulus Israel in Eamesse : cxiit tie CIEfigpto

altera llie post paSClja, reminding us of the journey from
Eameses ("Vulg. Bamesse) to Succoth. (Ex. xii. 37.) Then

Sierra €siptt»

Near this is another island in the Nile, with the word
insula and Baliglonia C., the city of Cairo, s'aid to have
been built by Sesostris, but, according to Josephus, by
Cambyses. (Diod. i. 5 6 ; Joseph. Ant. ii. 15,1; Geographia
Univ. p. 27 ; MandeviLle, Trav. p. 34.)

Near the " river of Egypt" we find ©rrea 30Se|ll)i, the
granaries of Joseph, as the Pyramids used to be called in the
Middle Ages, a notion which is said to have come from
Gregory of Nazianzus, but which existed also in Arabian
tradition. Sir John MandeviUe is very precise upon the
point, he says : — " Sum Men seyn, that thei ben Sepultures
of grete Lordes, that beren somtyme ; but that is not trewe :

ASIA. 87

for aUe the comoun rymour and speche is of alle the peple Egypt.
there, bothe fer and nere, that thei ben the Garneres of
Joseph." (Dieuil, de Mensura Orlis, c. vi. 3 ; Early Trav.
p. 24; Mandeville, Trav. p. 52 ; Sandys, Trav. p. 128;
Van Egmont, ii. 92.)

Below these is a figure of a winged creature, entitled

SalamanUra Uracoti tienraosa. The noxious qualities of

the Salamandra are described by Pliny with great energy.
Except as regards wings, which the Salamander has not, it
is fairly represented as a scarlet newt or lizard. The red
colour is due, no doubt, to the notion which prevailed so
long of its being able to Hve in fire — nay, even to extinguish
it. (PUn. x. 188, xxix. 74 ; Isid. xii. 4, 36 ; MS. de natura
hestiarum, Harl. 3244.)

Near the Salamander, perhaps, as an antidote in its
nature, and also an antithesis in its description, comes a
figure of a plant with a human head at its base, JIHatttira=
gora, eria miraftilttcr &irtUOSa, The virtues of mandra-
gora, especially against the bite of a serpent, are described
also at length by Phny. The legends which grew up in
course of time respecting it are set forth at length in the
Herbaria of the Middle Ages. The human head at the root
arose, it has been suggested, from a fanciful likeness in the
root of the plant to a human figure, and in England partly
from the first syllable of the word "mandrake;" but of this
our cartographer was perhaps innocent. Mandragora is a
powerful narcotic, thought to be, at any rate in Shakspeare's
time, one of the most powerful of " all the drowsy syrups of
the world ;" but its supposed human form invested it in the
Middle Ages with a sort of human life, so that when drawn
out of the ground it was believed to shriek, and the person
who committed this violence usually died or became insane.
To avoid this a dog was tied by a siring to the root, and

88 ASIA.

Egypt, urged to drag it forth, so that the mischief might fall on him
and not on his master. The mandragora is placed in the
Map in Egypt, perhaps because of its mention by Pliny in
connection with some other Egyptian articles, and by Solinus
in connection with Numidia. (Plin. xxv. 147, 150 ; Solinus,
26, 8 ; Isid. xvii. 9, 30 ; Harl. MS. 5294; Nares, Glossary;
Browne, Vulg. Err. ii. 6 ; "Wright, Pop. Science, p. 101.)

Below this is a river called fl» (JtJUSta, which repre-
sents the eastern or Pelusian arm of the Nile, though it is
difficult to account for the transformation of that name into
the form given in the map. Near this, at the head of the
Mediterranean, is ©StrOCJ^nta C„ the town Osteacine, at
which place Solinus says that Pompey was buried, though
Pliny says otherwise. It was an Episcopal see. (Plin. v.
68 ; Solinus, 34, 1 ; Ant. Bin. 152, 1 ; Bingham, iii. 201.)
|Hclt0SUS ciilttaS comes next, but what place is intended
the writer has not succeeded in discovering ; and then
tttOnS ClilliaX, whose position here, so much out of its
proper place, is due to Orosius. (Oros. i. 2.)

Between the river Chusta and the Nile a space is formed
denoting the Delta, within which is an inscription In !)0C

triangiilo iti t%i ©clta infertoris ^sijjti ei:€;iL ct&itates esse

artim gSttlOrUS attCStante, it comes, with strange blunders
in the copying, from Marcjan CapeUa, whose concluding
words are Artemidorus attestatur. The numbers are borrowed
from Pliny, v. 59 ; Marcian CapeUa, vi. 676 ; Solinus, 32, 1.
Within the area thus named are the following specimens of the
250 towns, ^elastum, Pelusium ; StmaS, perhaps denot-
ing the islands so called by Pliny; JSaSUttS, perhaps
Bacathus, an Episcopal see, or Bubastus ; ^elipoUS, pro-
bably Philippopolis in Ai-abia, also an Episcopal see ;

jHemptiis ; ^lexantiria, with a figure of the Pharos ; ^are=

tontum ; EafnUSi r., perhaps Tahpanhes (Jer. xliii. 8) ;

ASIA. 89

^TafutS, by S. Jerome called Taphnas, probably Tanes, which Egypt.
comes next in S. Jerome's list ; and CtatUlUS, perhaps
Crialus. (Plia. v. 61, vi. 64, 169 ; Oros. i. 2 ; Ant. Itin. 72,
4, 161, 5 ; Hieron. de situ, p. 924 ; Bingham, iii. 59, 201.)
In the open space is ^UtttE TllOtlS, which is perhaps a
blundering misnomer for the nomas menelaites of Marcian
CapeUa. Below this ^extVXVLS, the Desert, probably with
reference to Ex. xvi. 1 ; and some foliage, with the words
Sttf)0 paltttJj which perhaps represents the Egyptian palm
mentioned by Solinus, and the place called Hiera Sycaminus
in the Itinerary. (Marcian Oapella, vi. 676 ; Plin. v. 49 ;
Solinus, 32, 26 ; Ant. Bin. 162, 4.)

CHAPTEE V.
AFEICA.

Boundaries — Dimensions — Lybia Cyrenensis — Pentapolis— Tripolitana — Africa
Propria — Numidia — Mauritania — Atlas and Astrixis — The Western Nile
— Ethiopians — Islands of the Western and Southern Oceans.

Bound- The boundaries of Africa on the side of Asia have bfeen

aries. already (p. 23) stated to lie at the range across which the

cartographer has inscribed ST^rtttittUS ^Sg0 Zt ^UxtCZ*,

whence the line was continued (according to OrosiuSj i. 2)

through Castra ^Inanlirt ilagtri and £acus (S^almxsus

ptOfUtttltSSitttUSt rrom this point the boundary becomes
somewhat uncertain. Orosius states that after passing the
boundaries of the Avasitee, it crosses obliquely (in trans-
mrsum) through the deserts of Ethiopia to the Southern
Ocean. Solinus describes Ethiopians as living behind Egypt
towards the south (32 § 1), and his statement is illustrated
in the arrangement of our map, in which tribes of Ethiopians
are depicted as living between Egypt and the Ocean. In
other directions the continent was bounded by the Sea.*
The only portion of it known to our cartographer was the
region adjacent to the Mediterranean, and of this the know-
ledge as exhibited on the map belonged exclusively to
ancient geography. Very little interest attaches to the

* In the brief manual at the back of the " Psalter" Map, the boundaries
of Africa are thus described : — "Termini Aifricc. Ex.parte orientis, Nilus ; a
meridie, Zona torrida ; a septentrione, Mare Mediterraneum ; ab oocidente,
Mediterranei Maris refluxio." The concluding words refer to the theory of
ocean currents which prevailed in the Middle Ages, and which is exhibited in
a map contained in a copy of Priscian in the British Museum. (MSS. Cotton.)

AFEICA. 91

names, and our chief business as commentators is to identify
them with their prototypes in the authorities whence the
cartographer drew his materials.

The dimensions of the continent are given in an inscrip- Dimen-
tion which is placed near the Nile to the following effect : — sions.

ILonsitutio ^ftxizz a6 (Ettjtopico mart usque ali ^lex=
antirtam magnam per JTOerom et Siencm titties septies
l3tF passuum, longttulr0 lat. ttxtits scptics m miliaria.

The first of these estimates is borrowed, with some slight varia-
tion, from Phny, vi. 209, where it is applied to the " latitudo
Asice" Meroe and Syene being regarded as belonging to
Asia rather than to Africa. The second estimate is bor-
rowed from Pluiy, iv. 208, where it is applied, as in the map,
to the " longitudo Africa." Our cartographer appears to have
felt some misgivings as to the propriety of describing the
length of Africa twice and with varying figures; and he
meditated correcting the second " longitudo " by substituting
" latitudo" but did not get farther than the first syllable.

The first province of Africa on the side of Egypt is named Lybia
ILibia CtreuettSiS, which extended, according to Orosius Cyren-
(i. 2), and Isidore (xiv. 5 § 4), from the border of Egypt to ®°-^^*
the Greater Syrtis, and thus included the Marmarica and the
Cyrenaica or PentapoKs of classical geography. Isidore,
indeed, seems to make some distiaction between Lybia
Cyrenensis and Pentapolis, for he says (§ 5) "Est autem
Pentapolis Libyae Cyrenensi adjuncta et in ejus finibus de-
putata," and it is evidently in reference to these words that

the map says ^cntajjolis xt^xG ittfta ILiiiiem €ixtxitmtm

Jjeputa [deputata], though it is not clear in what sense the
term " infra " should be taken, unless to indicate the highly
erroneous idea exhibited in the map that PentapoHs lay in-
land, and in that sense hdow Lybia Cyrenensis. The words
with which the -inscription just quoted terminates are an

92 AFEICA.

Lybia explanation of the name "Pentapolis" in accordance with

Cyren- Isidore " a qutnque UtbiftUS tJtCta/* The Syrtis Major is

' noticed in an inscription borrowed from Pliny, v. 27, which

records the distance thence to the Syrtis Minor: — ^irtCS

JHajOrCS [the use of the plural number is in accordance

with Orosius] aij f)inc usquc aU JHinores Sirtes ME

paSSUUm* The promontory on the coast, named ^JjgtOTliS
prOtUOntoriUm, represents Eas Sem, the Phycus of Phny, v.
32, and the Phycuns of Solinus, 27, § 2. Of the towns
belonging to this region Parsetonium is transferred in the
map to Egypt. (S^ixZUt, the capital of the Pentapolis, is
rightly placed on the Une of the coast ; but the other four
cities are transported to the interior, namely, ^tXtUitt,
^pollonta, ^tfjolomaiUa (with an agnomen CCcUtrta, per-
haps in reference to Teuchika, which is used by Isidore in
lieu of Arsinoe), and ^rSttlOC, together with a fifth, Cujia,
as to which we can hazard no explanation, except that it
may have been introduced to complete the five cities in
this part of the map. In the same neighbourhood we find
the '^XtZ ^ijilCltOrUltt, which formed the ILmit between
Cyrenaica and Tripolitana, on the shore of the Mediterranean
(Oros. i. 2). They are pictorially represented in the map
by altar-like structures. The probability is that the arce
were nothing more than conspicuous sand-hills, which served
to mark the boundary, and that the legend respecting the
PhUseni and their patriotic self-devotion as recorded by
SaUust (Juff. 79), grew out of a mistaken view of the
significance of the term arce.
Tripoli- STrtpoUtatia adjoined Lybia Cyrenensis on the W., and

tana. occupied the stretch of coast between the greater and less
Syrtes. In classical geography this district was known as
Syrtica Eegio ; but this title was superseded in the third
century of the Christian era by the name Tripolitana, derived

AFEICA. 93

from the confederacy of three cities, — ^ILcptiS JHaglta (which Tripoli-
is transplanted from the coast to the interior), Safirata,* *^^^-
and ®CtR, more properly Oea, but named Ocea in Anton.
Itin. 62. The name Tripolitana survives in the modern
Tripoli, which has taken the place of Oea. A fourth town
is assigned in the map to this district, — IHagOTlia Ijicta
.StrttS, which may possibly be intended for the Macomadi-
Bus Syetis of Itin. 64. The river fLetljOTl is transplanted
from Cyrena'ica to Tripolitana, and is described as JluijiUS

mfErnalts liictus propter oftlibiotiem quam factt potati=

tifiUS, in general conformity with the statement of Soli-
nus, 27, § 54. The notion of its waters causing loss of
memory was founded on the name, which, however, more
probably referred to the river losing itself, like our Mole, in
a subterraneous course. The lesser Syrtis is noticed, with
its distance from Carthage, as in Phny, v. 26 : — StrtCS

mitiores . I^tnc usque air Cartaflinem mE sunt pas=

SUUttt* In the interior, to the S. of Tripolitana, the town
©ajtiara (properly Gaeama) was the capital of the Gara-
mantes, a well-known people in the Oasis now called Fezzan :
the place stUl exists as Ghermah. Orosius also places the
Geetuli and the Nothabres in this quarter, classing them
with the Garamantes as "barbari." The map follows Orosius
in this matter, as shown in the entry ^ic 6ar6ari 0etUlt,
^ataftreS et ©aramanteS, The Gsetuli really Uved farther
W. ; and as to the Natabres or Nothabres we can say
nothing, except that they are noticed in a similar connection
by ^thicus, cap. 110 : they appear in the "Psalter" map
under the form "Mathabres."

* Either mediaeval geographers or their editors have bimglod over these
names, Ocea Sahrata heing given in the I-mago Mundi, i. 17, as Occasia Berete,
and in the Otia Imper. ii. 11, as Oiuisa Berete, the first syllable of Sabrata
being thus tacked on to Ocea.

94 APEICA.

Africa Westward of Tripolitana follows, in classical geography,

Propria. ^]jg pro^dnce of Africa Propria, occupying the angle formed
by the coast-line which points towards Sicily. No indication
of this strongly-marked feature appears on the map ; but the
proximity of this part of Africa to Europe is notified in an
inscription drawn from Pliny, iii. 45 : — ^ffrica IjiStat ab
Italia minus WE paSSUUm. The promontory of 0. Bon,
which approximates so closely to Sicily, is indicated on the
map by jIKoitS JKercUtii, placed opposite to Crete ; while
its neighbour on the western side of the Bay of Carthage,
C. Farina, the ancient Peom. Apollinis, or, as the map has
it, PromttnctOrium ^pJJOlloniS, is removed to a great dis-
tance from it. Altogether the ignorance displayed by the
cartographer in this part of his map is nothing less than
astounding. The province of Africa was divided into two
portions, the more southerly of which was named Byzacena,
and the other Zeugitana. The former of these names is
spelt 33tUttC0tia in the map, to which is appended a some-
what unmeaning explanation of the name, borrowed from
Isidore, xiv. 5, § 7: — EefltO ZX ItUObUS tlOlltltSSimiS OJIpi;

tiis tiicta tst i'Q est ^trrtimetts tt 33ijattum» The name

could not, of course, have been derived from Adrumetum;
and as to Bizatium, no such town really existed. It was
necessary, however, to create the place which was to account
for the name of the province ; and, accordingly, we find such
a town inserted on the map, which, by a further mistake is
written JSgjatltiUttt, as in copies of Isidore and Orosius, and
so was liable to be confounded (as Gervase of Tilbury inti-
mates, Ot. Imp. ii. 11) with the well-known city of that
name in Thrace. The other division of Africa Propria is
described in a legend concocted from Isidore and other
quarters, the first portion being identical with the words
just quoted in explanation of Byzacium, which, with singular

APEIGA. 95

carelessness, is repeated for Zeugis ; the next portion, " Hsec Africa
est vera Africa," comes from Isidore, Z. c. § 8 ; while the last I'ropria.
clause, from " fert," appears to be founded on PUny, v. 24,
though not verbally agreeing with it. The legend runs

thus : — ZzuQis xzQio X tx Uuofius ttoiiiilissimts oppttiis :
i)cc est &era ^ffrica : \fBhzt ci&itatcs famosisstmag,
^Urumetum, Cartagiwm, SEcttcam [Uticam], famosam
mortc Cat0nis zt alias multas ct&itatcs : fert fructum
cmtcsimum ; per miliaria amjjlius ot passtium. The

towns of these two divisions are placed without much regard
to their relative positions. On the line of the coast we have
the foUowiag : — CatajiaS COlotlia, the Tacapas [v. I. Caca-
pas] COLONIA of Anton. Itin. 5 9, the modern Oahes, in which
the substitution of the initial c for t is preserved ; ZzUQiS, a
non-existent town, probably introduced in explanation of the
name of the province ; dijJJJeaS, properly Clypea, but in
Itin. 55, 57, Clipea and Clipeis, a place also noticed by
Solinus, 27, § 8, and CapeUa, vi. 669; CurUtttlli, Cueubis,
or, as ia Itin. 56, 57, Cueubi; ^Uljputl, Putput {Itin. 56,
5 8) ; ,Suffi6uS, properly Sufes, a town in the interior, but
always given in the form Sufibtjs in the Itin. 41, al.; ^l)ru=
tttrtUS, the capital of Byzacium, an important town, but
sorely misplaced, the cartographer having inverted the order
of the places, which should stand thus from E. to W., or,
more correctly, from S. to K, — Adrumetum, Putput, and
Clypea ; CartaflO ilttagtia, which is pictorially represented
by an edifice of imposing dimensions : the term " magna,"
accorded to it by Pliny, v. 24, applies of course to the later
Carthage, noticed by Soliuus, 27, § 11, and CapeUa, vi.
669, and which survived in great splendour until the 7th
century of our era ; SEctica, Utica, already noticed in the
inscription on Zeugis, as famous for the death of Cato (Ca-
peUa, vi. 669); and ^pjJUS ©iart., Hippo Diakkhytus, or

96 AJEICA.

Africa. H. Zaritus, the former in Solinus, 27, § 7, the latter in Itin.

Propria, 21^ i\^q agnomen being commonly explained as having refer-
ence to the floods with which the town was visited (PKn. v.
23). In the interior: — ^icomatttiUS mUtltCtpium, un-
doubtedly the Macomadibus municipium of Itin. 59, the
Macomades of CapeUa, vi. 670, and Macomades of PHny,
V. 25, a town of no importance, on the sea-coast; SDuStttttU,
more commonly Thysdeus, but in Itin. 53, Tusdro, and v. I.
Tustro; Scptimaita, the Septiminicia of Itin. 48, 50, a
place of no importance, between Sufes and Thenae; and
Suffrtttla, a central station in the interior, frequently men-
tioned in the Itin. (46, al)

Two rivers are introduced into the map as belonging to
this region. The one named i^tagala is intended for the
iBagratiasl, near Carthage. [The form Bragada appears in
some copies of CapeUa, vi. 669.] The other, which occupies
the true position of the Bagradas, is named iKuSita or JKUs
Sica, a name for which we can suggest no explanation, unless
it be a misreading of the name Amsiga, or Amsica as some
copies of Solinus have it, and which the cartographer has sup-
posed to be a different river from the Amsiga mentioned be-
low (p. 9 7). In the extreme S. we find an entry of the HaCUS
■Salittarttttt, which Orosius notices as on the border of Tri-
politana, and which is probably identical with the Lacus
Saliciarum of the Anglo-Saxon map, and the Saline of the
Peutinger Table, and of Dicuil, Be Mens. Orhis, 7, § 7, which
exhibited the phenomenon of waxing and waning with the
monthly changes of the moon.

Gsetulia. To the S. of Africa Propria, our cartographer places

Gsetulia, though he should have placed it further W., to the
S. of Mauritania. The first words of the legend relating to
this country, " mediteranea pars Affrice," come from Isidore,
xiv. 5, § 8, and the remainder verhatim from Solinus, 27, § 12,

AFRICA. 97

who is referred to by name : — ®EtUlea tttCtltteranea parS Gsetulia.

^Wcitt X interna ^ffrice, ut SoUnug testatur : plurime
quitiem iestte set [sed] prtnctpaliter leones tenent.

Figures of a ILeopattl, and a lion, 3Leo, are designed to show
the multiplicity of wild beasts in this region.

^^.ttntttlta is correctly placed between Africa Propria and Wumidia.
Mauritania, the boundary on the side of the latter being the
river Ampsaga, Wad el Kebir, as stated in an inscription
which records the combined lengths of this and the adjacent
province of Africa, according to Pliny, v. 25 : — ILongttll'tlO

^ffrice et i^umiliie a6 ^mstsa flumine xtsque at Eri=

polim ® et EIII paSSUUm* The name ^msiga is also
affixed to the river, that form of the name appearing in
Solinus, 26, § 1. The towns of this province noticed are
Hippo REoros, famous as the see of St. Augustine, who is
represented by a canopied figure with the inscription jlppone

regnum ct ciiritas sancti ^ugusttni eptscopi, the form

HiPPONE * being the one always used in the Itin. 6, 42,
44 ; 3EtuSStcalta or EusiCADE, which served as the harbour
of Cirta {Bin. 5, 19); ^pe Ettlilttane, a place noted for
its hot baths {Itin. 42 ; August. Ep. 112, vol. ii. 427), and
probably identical with the present Eammam-el-Berda ; and
2Erta, probably a mistake for Cirta, the capital of Numidia,
which is frequently mentioned in the Itin., as well as by
Solinus, 26, § 1.

|$laui'ttania constitutes the remaiuiag division of Mauri-
Northern Africa in ancient geography. It was originally tania.
sub-divided into two provinces, CeSartenSiS and VLingU
tana but about A.D. 400 a portion of the former was made
into a distinct province, with the name of StttfenStS, and
this, being noticed by Orosius, i. 2, finds a place on the

* So "Imago Mundi," i. 19 :— "In liac (sc. Numidia) est civitas Hyppone
in qua fuit Augustinus episcopus."

98 AFEICA.

Mauri- map. A large river, named JBlalua, otherwise known by
tania. the names Mulucha and Molochath, and now as Muluwi,
divides Caesariensis and Tingitana. The large afflueat
assigned to it on the map, under the name ^alltllt, repre-
sents the Bio Salado, on the banks of which was a Eoman
station named Ad Saltjm flumen {Itin. 1 3). The towns in-
troduced into the map are as follows : — On the sea coast,
^giCOltS, the Igilgili of Itin. 18, 39, 40; SalUiS, as in
Itin. 5, 3 9, for SalDjE ; BtUSUtUS, probably a mistake for
EUSAZIS, the next station to Saldis in Itin. 17; ^UQOM,
EusGUNlAE, for which a v. I. in Itin. 16 gives Eugoniae;
^gntUttt STipaSSa, a puzzling designation, the latter word
representing Tipasa of Itin. 1 5, the former possibly a mis-
taken form of lomnium, which appears in the same route of

the Itin. ; ffiirtentta, Caetenna {Itin. 14) ; ffiaja munici;

piUttl, probably the QuiZA municipium of Itin. 13, which is
near Cartenna ; SattaCOltS, for which we can find no repre-
sentative in true geography; f^USaJjllCtl, more correctly
EUSADDEE (Itin. 11), near a promontory of the same name,
' otherwise called Metagonites, Bds-el-Sarshah, but in the map
ilHottS SaUtli, which appears in Itin. 11 as a ■y J. for Eusaddi;
JHonS CatWar, a station at the promontory of Cannar, 0.
Quilates, mentioned in Itin. 1 1 ; 3LtX COL, the Lix colonia,
of Itin. 7, and of mythological fame, as the scene of Hercules's
victory over Antaeus (SoUn. 24, § 3; Capella, vi. 667),
much misplaced in the map, inasmuch as it really lay on
the shore of the Atlantic ; JKottS Stgga, probably intended
for the SiGA municipium of Itin. 1 2, the true position of which
was eastward of Eusadder [can the mons be a mistake for
the abbreviated form of municipium ?] ; and lastly, ^ntSiUttt,
IcosiUM (very much misplaced, inasmuch as Algiers occupies
its site), a place associated with the myth of Hercules, whose
companions were said to have built it (Solin. 25, § 17). On

APEICA. 99

the shore of the Atlantic the cartographer introduces |H01XS Maiiri-
Calpcl, Calpe or Gibraltar, having transposed the respective tania.
positions of Abyla and Calpe. In the interior, .Sitipfjt
IJlrtroJJOliS, the capital of M. Sitifensis, frequently men-
tioned in the Itin., but without the adjunct " metropolis " ;
Ccsarta, the capital of Csesariensis, a well-known town; a
figure of a town below the title Mauritania Tingitana, doubt-
less intended for its capital TiNGis, though the name is
omitted ; and lastly, ©pptljum, on the Septem JKontES,
intended for the station Ad septem Featkes in Itin. 9, and
Geog. Baven. iii. 11, at or near Ceuta, the "Septem Fratres''
being a range of heights near Abyla, whose name (mentioned
by Isidore, xiv. 5, § 12), proved attractive to mediaeval
geographers, as shown in the Anglo-Saxon map.

The sandy wastes of Central Africa are separated from the Atlas and
cultivable region by a mountain belt which rises near the Astrixis.
Atlantic, and stretches eastward to the neighbourhood of G.
Bon and the Lesser Syrtis. The general name for this belt,
both in ancient and modem geography, is Atlas. In Orosius
the dividing range is named Asteixis, and Atlas is described
as a mountain bounding Mauritania Tingitana on the W.,
and hence closely adjacent to the Atlantic. Astrixis is said
to lie south of Mauritania Caesariensis and Sitifensis, and
also of Numidia ; the line is continued in a range, called by
Orosius, i. 2, Montes Euzaee.<e. The map gives expression to
these views. Atlas is depicted as an isolated mountain on
the shores of the Atlantic, and in connection with this moun-
tain the following description of the phenomena attributed to
it, which may be traced back through SoHnus, 24, § 10, and
Pliny, v. 7, to Hanno, Beriplus, § 14, the sole foundation for
the story being the attempt of the natives to frighten navi-
gators from the shore by lighting fires and making strange
noises at night (see an annotation in MuUer's Geog. Graec.

100 AFEICA.

Atlas and Min. i. 11) :— JHous ^uttlatis cxceIsus nimts : per tiiZVX

Astrixis. g^g^ . ^octibus apparent iU luminaria : autiuntur tin-

nttus cimiialorum : cljoris et ^egipants M baccijantiftus.

The tale is repeated by Higden {Polychron, i. 21). Of
Astrixis it is said, in the words of Orosius, i. 2, S 31 : —

JHoTXiS Astrixis tribilitt ninam [vivam] terram rt armas
jacentes usque ati ©ceanum, in quifius ofterrant @att=

gitieS CEtfjtOpeS, Isidore repeats the former part of this

statement in nearly the same words (xiv. 5, § 1 1). ^thicus

mentions Astrixis iacidently, as one of the loftiest mountains

in the world (c. 21). We are not acquainted with the origin

of the name. Wuttke, in his Prolegomena to .^thicus, p.

xi, regards it as a corruption of an Indian name — Asta-giri,

" the mountain of the setting sun." From Astrixis the range

is continued eastward in the JilOUt0S ^UlKXtt* Another

mountain is placed on the shores of the Atlantic, |$lOttS

f^eSperUS, mentioned by Orosius, i. 2, and representing

the Hespeeuceeas of Soliaus, 56, § 10, PHny, vi. 199, and

Hanno's Periplus, § 14; — the modern C. Verde. The presence

of deserts in the neighbourhood of Astrixis ,is indicated by

an inscription ^natlttca [? Atlantica] IJESerta, with which

we may compare the expression of Solinus, 24, § 7 " Atlan-

ticas solitudines."

Nile. The most remarkable feature in this portion of the map is

the broad blue band which traverses nearly the whole length of

the continent in a line parallel to the Southern Ocean. This

band represents the upper course of the Nile as described

by Orosius, i. 2, Solinus, 32, § 2, and Pliny, v. 51. It was

supposed to rise in close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, near

Mons Hesperus. In that region it was known to the natives

under the names Nuchul and Dara. Both these names

appear on the map, but for independent streams ; the I^UCijUl

as flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, and the ©aia as flowing

AFEICA. 101

in the line of the Nile, but distinct from it, to intimate the Nile,
submergence, which is expressly noticed in the Anglo-Saxon
map {Introd. p. xxxiv.) The name "Dara" may possibly
have originated in the Daeadus, Eio de Oicro, on the W.
coast of Africa; "Nuchul" is probably connected with
" Nile " ; it appears again in the " Jerome " Map (Brit. Mus.
Add. MS. No. 10,049), and is here assigned to the "Western
Nile; see also Geog. Haven, iii. 1. A large lake represents
the reappearance of the Nile, which thence flows in a con-
tinuous course to the border of Egypt, there to undergo a
second submergence, as notified in the " Imago Mundi " map.
Its final course in Egypt has abeady been described under
the head of Asia. In its mid-course the Nile receives an
affluent from the N., the name of which, being abbreviated,
is difficult to decipher ;' by the aid of the " Imago Mundi " „
map, however, we are enabled to read the inscription as
ILaCUS tt fiumen Wvitan^ There can be little doubt that
this refers to the lake Tritonitis and the river Triton, which
falls into the lesser Syrtis, and which has'&en transported
to the interior along with the cities of the Pentapolis and
the Arae Philenorum; though it should not be overlooked that,
according to Pliny, v. 54, the name Triton was sometimes
affixed to the Nile. The omission of all notice of the name
Nigris, to which Solinus gives full prominence, is worthy of
observation. In the delineation of the Nile our cartographer
is in close agreement with the Anglo-Saxon and the " Imago
Mundi" maps.

Between this river and the ocean are figures of various Ethiopia.
monstrous creatures, described by Pliny, SoHnus, and Mela.
First come a people without ears and with twisted feet : —

(&ms Bine aurtius, ^mitart tiictt quoti ai&ersts plantts.

They are called by PKny Savibri, and by Solinus Psamhari-
The account of these writers that these people have no quad-

102 AFKICA.

Ethiopia, rupeds possessed of ears, not even elephants, with whatever
credence this statement may be received, is farther improved
by our author, or the authority from whom his account is
derived, for he makes the people themselves be earless.

Next comes a race with one leg and one eye only. The
former is of extra size, and is terminated by a foot with a
preternatural number of toes. Its versatHity of use is pro-
bably intended to make up for its singularity, for it serves
the purpose of an umbrella. With the latter he seems to be
ogling some person or persons unknown, making " mops and
mowes" with a grace truly artistic. This " delicate monster''
dwells in Ethiopia, as Isidore informs us, and his race is
called, in the Latin of our author, not of Isidore, SctUOJJCUfS,

qui unicruri xaixt sttlzxzs (ceieres) plantis 06um6rantur :

iOtVX SOnt (sunt) tnonOCOlt. They appear to be a sort of
supplement to our former acc[uaintances the Sciapodes, if,
indeed, they are not identical with them. (Phn. vii. 23;
SoLinus, 52, 29 ; Isid. xi. 3, 23.)

Next come the men whose mouths are closed so fast that
they are forced to imbibe their food through a reed, (^tU8

oxt concrrto calamo cibatur (Soiin. 30, 13; Mela, m. 9;

Isid. xi. 3, 18); and then one of the race of both sexes : —

ffims uUxqnz sexxts mnaturales multimoliis moDts, of

whom the less said the better. (Isid. xi. 3, 11.)

Next come a race whose mode of progression is peculiar,
being effected by creeping on all fours instead of walking : —

?§imantopoUes : fluxts nisifius crurum reptmt potius
quai [quam] mcetuitt ; zt pergenlit usum lapsu pottus

teStinant [quam] a grCSSU [ingressu]. This passage is
taken from Solinus. We may remark that the head-dress
of the individual resembles the modern Prussian military
helmet. (PMn. v. 46; Solinus, 31, 4.) Next come the
Psylli, who were credited with the custom of testing the

AFKICA. 103

chastity of their wives by the exposure of their new born Ethiopia.
infants to serpents. The process is exhibited on the map,
the mother anxiously watching her offspring in the embrace
of the writhing serpents. The inscription is founded on
Solinus, 21, § 42: — ^JjilU [Psylli] jJUtlicitiam UXOrUttt

prnlrant oftjcctu no&iter natorum serpenttftus ; near which
is Jlons articns scrprntiftus plma.

Below the Psylli come the Blemyse, with mouth and
eyes placed in their breasts : — iSlfttlCe OS rt OCUloS ijaftcttt
itl JICCtOr0, words which are taken from Isidore, who took
them from Solinus. The Blemyes or Blemyse were a wUd
race of Ethiopia, who frequently invaded Egypt. They were
probably in the habit of hanging down their heads, especially
when taken captive, and so became credited with the de-
formity ascribed to them by Eoman writers. (Plin. v. 45 ;
Solinus, 31, 4 ; Mela, i. 8 ; Isid. xi. 3, 17.)

Next to the Blemyte is a veritable specimen of the " men
whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders " : — Jgti OS tX
OCUlOS i)3t6ftlt in i)UtltenS, who are classed by Isidore with
the Blemyse (Isid. xi. 3, 17); and next below them, holding
in his hand what looks like an elongated croquet mallet, one
of the maritime Ethiopians, who have four eyes a-piece, not
in fact, as Pliny is careful to inform us, but in metaphor,
because their sight is so keen: — ilffllarjtliTti [Maritimi]

(!Hti)iopcs qui quatemos oculos Jjatrent (PUn. vi. 194;

Sohnus, 30, 6). And, lastly, a pair of men, with the in-
scription : — ^angities ^tfjiopes: amtcitia cum eis non

t%it These people are probably connected, at any rate in
name, with the Gangines of page 35. The title inscribed
above them represents the description given by Pliny,
Solinus, and Mela, of the Gamphasantbs, but is most
like the one found in Marcian CapeUa. Isidore ascribes
the unsocial quality given in the Map to the Gaeamantes,

104 AFEICA.

Ethiopia, and founds it upon the phrase of Virgil, Ed. viii. 44.
(Plin. V. 45 ; Solinus, 31, 5 ; Mela, i. 8 ; Marcian CapeUa,
vi. 674; Isid. ix. 2, 125.)

The SDrOCOtltteC or Troglodytes [The copies of Solinus
generally spell the name Teogodyt^, omitting the Z], are
twice mentioned in the map ; firstly to the E. of the river
Triton, where notice is taken of a remarkable spring in their
country, which acted as an ordeal for theft, its waters pro-
ducing blindness in case of guilt : — ^C fotlg apulj EtOCO;
ittaS furCS UtMXZ arguenS \ and, secondly, westward of
the Triton, where they are pictoriaUy represented as living
in caves, eating serpents, and capturing wUd animals by
jumping on their backs, in accordance with the following
legend :— EtOCOtlitC X XOixt %ZZlZXt% : SpCCtt aCCOlUttt ; QU'-

pentcs Etiuut : feros saltiiius ajjprdjmUunt. with re-
gard to the spring, Isidore (xiii. 1 3, § 9) commemorates 'a
remarkable well in the country of the Troglodytes, but of
totally different qualities from the one noticed in the map.
The other legend is founded on Solinus, 31, § 3, and 56, § 9;
but the cartographer has substituted saltibus for the " cursi-
bus" or "cursu pedum" of the author. Though there is
much that is mythical in these statements, the existence of
a Troglodyte population in the interior of Africa is a well-
ascertained fact, Imown as far back as the time of Herodotus
(iv. 183). They are the modern Tiiboos, who occupy the
Tibesti range, to the S. of Fezzan, and who are still remark-
able for their agility (Lyon, Travels in North Africa, p.
227).

Between the two entries of the Troglodytes, and just at
the junction of the Triton with the Nile, a figure like a bird
is depicted, with the superscription :— JSaStUSCUS X S£mi}IE=
talis : 0St albiS litteig maCUlatUS. This description is
apparently founded on the description of Solinus, 27, § 51,

ATKICA. 105

"ad semipedem longitudinis, alba quasi mitrula lineatus Ethiopia.
caput," wlio in this agrees with PKny, viii, 78. But both
these -writers describe the basilisk as a serpent, differing,
however, from other serpents in regard to its mode of loco-
motion, and the position of its body when moving. Its
presence was held to be poisonous to all nature — to animals,
vegetables, and even the soil itself. In the Middle Ages
it was usually depicted as a lizard-like creature, with a
crown on its head, and with several pairs of legs : it may be
seen so represented in the works of Aldrovandus and Gre-
vinus. Occasionally, however, it was depicted in a manner
very similar to that in our map, namely as a bird. So it
appears in a Bestiary belonging to St. John's CoU., Oxford ;
and so again in the Cambridge " Imago Mundi " map (see
Intr. p. xxxix.). A full description of the animal in this
form is given by Cahier and Martin (Mil. d'ArcMol. ii. 2 1 3),
together with a representation of it as a bird, taken from
an old Bestiary. It is described as the serpent of Paradise,
bom of the egg of a cock seven years old. It has the head
and neck of a fowl, and the lower parts of a serpent : it kiUs
birds with the glance of its eye, and trees by its touch : it
is the king of all serpents. In the Middle Ages the ashes
of the basUisk were used in the transmutation of copper into
Spanish gold (Theophilus, Divers. Art. Sched. cap. 47, and
note, p. 275).*

Westward of the Troglodytes comes the figure of a Hon,
already noticed, and then a representation of some large ants
digging up gold dust with] their feet, and jealously guarding
it against aU comers. The legend which teUs us this is

founded on Soiinus, 30, § 23 : — ^ic granDes formtce
auream sericam [servant] arenas, it is not known

whence SoUnus drew his statement, which is evidently only
* Comrare further, Harl. MSS. 4751.

106 AFEICA.

Ethiopia, another version of the story of the grif&ns, as told by Hero-
dotus (iv. 13, 27).

The remaining figure represents the one-eyed king of a
race of Ethiopians who lived on the flesh of panthers and
lions, whence they derived their specific title. The legend
is borrowed from Sohnus, 3 0, § 6, and reads thus : — ^grio=

ptafli <!Kti)topes : Solas pantcrarum et Itonum carnes
etunt J ijabentes regem cujus trt fronte [ocuius] unus est.

These people are the "Agofagy" of the Eomance of King
Alexander (U. 6350-57), of whom it is said —

" Another folk woneth in the west half,
That eteth never kow no kalf.
Bote of panteris and lyouus,
And that they nymeth as venesons."

Islands of A zone of islands fringes the continent of Africa from
Western j^ ^^^^^g eastward. The first of these bears the inscription

Southern Jortuttate Eusuk : s^ sutit ; itisule Sanctt aSranUam,

Oceans. Under the title of "Fortunata Insulae" the ancient geo-
graphers included the Madeira and Canary groups, the
delightful climate of which seemed the realization of the
myth of Elysium— the abode of the blessed. The same
association of ideas led our cartographer to fix upon them as
the scene of St. Brandan's discovery, described in the old
legend as the "fayrest countree eestwarde that ony man
myght se, and was so clere and bryght that it was an
hevenly syght to beholde ; and all the trees were charged
with rype fruyte and herbes fuU of flowres ; in whiche londe
they walked XL dayes ; but they could se none ende of that
londe ; and there was alwaye daye and never nyght ; and
the londe attemperate ne to hotte ne to colde." St. Brandan
is reputed to have flourished in the middle of the sixth
century, the date of his burial in Clonfert Abbey being

AFEICA. - lOV

placed at 576. The legend of his voyage first assumed a Islands of
definite form towards the close of the 11th century, when Western
the Latin prose narrative was probably composed. This ^^
was followed by metrical versions in Latin and Anglo- oceans.
Norman, as early as Henry I.'s reign, and by an English
metrical version about the period of the map. The posi-
tion of the island was originally fixed westward of the
Canaries, from the highest points of which people fancied
that they descried a lofty island in fine weather, though
somehow they had always failed to reach it. In 1526,
1570, and again in 1605, expeditions were sent out from
the Canaries with the express purpose of discovering this
mysterious island, the existence of which was attested by
what was deemed to be unimpeachable testimony. In 1721
the search was renewed, and so late as 1755 the island appears
on a chart published by Gautier, in 29° N. lat., and about 5°
W. of Ferro (Viera, Hist. Isl. Can. i. 28, quoted in Irving's
Life of Columbus, ii. 876-881). The legend has been pub-
lished by the Percy Society. Of the individual isles which
constituted the group of the Fortunatse Insulse we have
Sunonta, Madeira ; W^Ztitit, possibly Teneriffe, the proper
name of the peak of which is Teyde (Santarem, ii. 433), in
which case that island is twice mentioned; Captatta,
Gomera; Uttxarta, probably a mistake for Nivaeia,
Temriffe; JEctttitiOtia, Ferro, whose proper ancient name
was Ombeion, for which " Membriona " occurs as a v. I. in
some copies of Capella, vi. 702, and "Embriona" in a copy
of Solinus, 56, § 17; and Cattaria, Gran-Canaria, which
was assumed to be derived from "canis," and hence the
addition Jjlma ntagtliS cantbuS (Solinus, 56, § 17).
Further E. we come to an island with the title EnSUlC
I^ESp^rilJUm, which Solinus (56, § 13) describes as
lying some forty days' voyage out from Hesperuceras ;

108 AFEICA.

Islands of probably the Cape Verde group is meant. Isidore (xiv. 5, §
10) asserts that these islands were so named from a town
Hesperis in Mauritania, ©auloma follows, u6t SCTpetlteS
net &i&Unt mc naSCUntUr ; this is said by Solinus (29, § 8)
of Gauloe (v. I. " Gaiiloenis "), the Gaulos of Pliny, v. 42,
an island ia the Mediterranean ; the name that should have
been entered in this position is " Gorgades Insulas " (Sohn. 56,
§ 10). The next two islands are introduced as being stages
on the route between Gades and India, as described by
Soliiius (56, § 7) after Pliny, vi. 175 : — aUatlUm itlSUla,
and Scetta, with an inscription on the latter referring to the
distance between t hem : — giCgtta ittSUla : !)inc USqUE ait

^tranum insulam ececec passuum*

The two next islands may be considered in connection with
each other. The larger one has the inscription, JttSula &ixiU

iticeufti rtticus in&mtt besttolas atrtirststas acuUis plmas

b^lulj SttiX. Above this is a mountain, with the words, motlS
aUSttOTlOtI)US* Before we attempt to explain these inscrip-
tions, it win be well to proceed to the next entry, an island
with the words, f|lc %ixmz fjaftuntjant. The two islands, with
their inscriptions, appear to be inserted in accordance with
the followiag passage from ^Ethicus : — Insolam Syrthynicem
incurrit et illic invenit hestiolas pessimas, ignotas, cydrositcLS
plenas aculeis velut istrix, et syrenarum multitudinem. And,
farther on, montem hahet Austronothium in ea insola, whose
astonishing height, and the extensive view from its summit,
he describes at great length, and also the sounds which pro^
ceed from it. As to the inscription itself, it is perhaps as
easy to explain adihsistas as eydrositas, for which, as v. II., are
substituted ycdrositas and cidracistas, words as unintelligible
as those which are found both in the text and in the map.
Strix no doubt stands for Hystrix, not an owl, but a porcu-
pine ; but perhaps the transcriber was more familiar with

AFEICA. 109

the former than the latter, especially as in his account of the Islands of
porcupine, Isidore in a v. I., has strix, and calls it immite Western
animal. Pliny says that it is found in India and Africa, ^^^
Solinus in Ethiopia. It is not surprising that where these oceans
"pestilent little creatures" Uke porcupines should abound,
sirens should abound also, though our author judiciously
places them on a separate island. But what island is in-
tended by Sirtinice, and what mountain by Atjsteonothus,
it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say. Ptolemy mentions
a town called Syrnisica, near the mouth of the Indus, and
Cosmas Indico-Pleustes speaks of Ceylon as called some-
times Tzinitza, a misnomer for Sina or Tsina, but ^thicus
evidently intended to describe a volcanic island further W.
than Ceylon, and Wuttke, his editor, conjectures that he
may have had the island of Bourbon in view. The name,
however, cannot be identified with any degree of certainty,
(^thic. :pref. p. xiii. § 21, 23 ; Phn. viii. § 125 ; Solin. 30,
28 ; Ptol. vii. 1, 64.)

Last comes the island JHaltcfjU, with an inscription
to the effect that it is distant from Drepanum 1500 miles,
that from Drepanum to the island ^CJttS is a distance of
440 miles, and that hence it is clear that the whole coast is
navigable, because the distance admitted of being thus mea-
sured: — ^JEaltc|)U; insula ^tljiopie a ©rcpano pro--
munctorto quintre ries ^ p assuum Jjtstat; fjtnc alj
.Sccnam tnsulam MmM passuum, Iste [? inde]
constat totum litus nabiflaiilc : |)tc tmt quotr tta potuit

JttCnStirari* This is taken chiefly from PHny and Solinus,
who appeal to the authority of Juba, who maintained that the
whole distance from India to Gades was navigable, in oppo-
sition to those who said that the heat rendered this impos-
sible. The distance first mentioned, 1500 mQes, though
greatly in excess of the truth, agrees with the numbers given

110 AFEICA.

Islands of by Pliny and Solinus, but the distance which they give

Western between Malichu and Scena is only 225 miles. The name

Southern ^-"-ICHU, or Malchu, as Pliny gives it, belonged, according

Oceans. to Ptolemy, to two islands in the Eed Sea, opposite Ethiopia.

PUny speaks not of an island, but of a place, called Sceneos,

and says that from this place to the island Adantj was a

distance of 1 5 miles. Ptolemy represents all these islands

as withiu the Eed Sea, but makes two islands of Adantj.

(Ptol. vi. 7, 44 ; Plin. vi. § 175, 176 ; Solin. 56, 6, 8.)

CHAPTEE VI.
MEDITEEEANEAlf AND EUXINE SEAS.

Mediterranean Sea and its subdivisions — Gades and the Pillars of Hercules —
Balearic Isles — Sardinia, Corsica, and tlie adjacent Isles — The Liparean
Islands — SicUy — Crete and the adjacent Isles — Isles of the Adriatic Sea —
Cyclades — Mene and Canopus — Rhodes, Euhoea, Cyprus, etc. — Isles placed
in the Enxiue Sea.

The Mediterranean Sea holds much the same position in
mediaeval that it did in classical geography, as the Mare
Magnum, the "Great Sea"* of the habitable "world. Its form
is very imperfectly delineated in the Hereford map, as, in-
deed, in most mediaeval maps. From the Strait of Gibraltar
(which is unduly widened, to allow room for the isle of
Gades) it expands equably on the sides both of Africa and
Europe to the peninsula of Italy, a very sHght allowance
being made for the GuKs of Lyons and Genoa. Italy pro-
jects eastward rather than southward, and Sicily is brought
opposite to Eome. The Adriatic is depicted with very
moderate accuracy. Eastward of this the sea is reduced
to the width of a strait; and the broad basin between
Egypt and Asia Minor is represented only by two project-
ing arms, which answer to the angles of the sea in Cflicia
and in the south of Palestine. The ^gaean, Hellespont,
and Propontis, are made of nearly equal breadth ; and the
Thracian Bosporus is only accidentally narrowed by the posi-

* .SIthious describes its merits in the following turgid language :— " Mare
magno plantationem et germen ac virgultum et piscinam regalem ac medullam
intersecantem trifarie geminatam orbis planitiem esse. Oceano relicto in sig-
uis et portentis et ultra quam credi potest autumat Mare Magnum sorbiti-
unculam vel cloaeam abyssi magni" (cap. 73).

112 MEDITEREAlSrEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.

tion assigned to Cardia. These seas are unduly lengthened,
the consequence being that the Euxine is thrown too far
north. The shape of this latter sea is very incorrectly given,
its length being much exaggerated. Both the Mediterranean
and the Euxine are studded with islands to such a degree
that we suspect our cartographer to have believed that the
sea was expressly made for the islands, and that "nature
abhorred a vacuum " of unoccupied expanse.

The name f^WCt JHetltteramum is placed opposite to
Italy, and several of the semi-inclosed seas are noticed.
One of the titles is peculiar, viz. JHaU ILeonUllt, which
occurs between Crete and Italy. Santarem (ii. 416) sug-
gests that M. Ionium is meant; but we think it possible
that it refers to the Mare Leonis, our "Gulf of Lyons" popu-
larly so called, but properly " Gulf of the lAon" as by the
French, "Golfe du Lion :" this title, as applied to the ancient
Sinus Gallicus, is as old, at aU events, as the 14th century.
(Manage, Bict. Etym. s. v. "Lion.") The title ^tiriatiCUS
Sinus is duly entered. The ^gsean Sea is designated
^gea» Then we have ?|elleSpontUS, Dardanelles; 33l)S=
farUS EraCtUS, Strait of Constantinople; ^rOJJOntilriS
fSidiXZ, Sea of Marmara, placed in the Euxine ; CTitltfriSUttl
fSiWCZ, doubtless intended for the Cimmerian Bosporus,
Strait of Yenikale (the title occurs in the "Imago Mundi"
map) ; and, lastly, ^UXittUttt fSiWCt, The omission of the
names Sinus Gallicus, Tyrrhenum Mare, and, possibly. Ionium
Mare, is the more noticeable, inasmuch as they appear in
Isidore, xiii. 16.
Gades. Entering the Mediterranean from the Atlantic by the
Strait of Gibraltar, we first meet with an island surmounted
by two columns, with the superscription ©alJtS ^^EtCUUS,
and with the further inscription on the island itself, — CCalpCS

0t ^feinna ©atits 3^ercults esse cretiuntur. The name

MEDITEEEANEAN" AND EUXINE SEAS: 113

" Gades," which properly applies to the town of Cadiz, situ- Gades.
ated on a small island closely adjacent to the mainland, is
here evidently considered as equivalent to " columnfe." So
in Hispanice ChrorograpMa we read "Hercules fortissimas
turres construxit quas Gades appeUavit." {Hispania Illus-
trata, i. 9.) Higden (i. 30) explains this peculiar meaning
of Gades on the ground that the pillars took their name
from the island. The form " Abiana " for " Abyla " is found
in Solin. 23, § 13: — "Calpe et Abinna montibus quos
dicunt colunmas Hercirlis." But along with this recognition
of the natural " PUlars of Hercules " there was the idea that
the hero had placed some artificial structures at the town of
Gades. Of these Orosius speaks, i. 2, — "Apud Gades in-
sidas Herculis columnse visuntur;" and so Higden, i. 20, —
" Gades ubi et Hercules posuit colunmas mirabiles et memo-
rabiles."

Passing on, we come to the Balearic Isles, on one of Baleares.
which (intended for Majorca) we read, — BaleatES itlSUle
ItUe sunt in est JlatOrsa et iHmorga, a statement bor-
rowed from Orosius, i. 2. Another island contains an im-
perfect inscription, evidently taken from Isid. xiv. 6, | 44,

— iHtnorga in Ijts primum insults in&ente sont fontre,

referring to the well-known skill of the inhabitants in the
use of the shng, to which the name Baleares (from jSaXXw)
was popularly attributed. A third member of the group,
Ebusus or Ivica, is described in exact conformity with

Isidore, xiv. 6, § 43, — (Bhos cujus terram serpmtes fuQu

VLVit, referring to the belief that serpents were never found
on it.

We next come to Sarlfinia, which is drawn in the
shape of a foot, in accordance with the general resemblance
noticed by the ancients, as expressed in the names Sandalio-
tis and Ichnusa. The inscription runs thus: — SarlJinta

H

114 MEDITEEEANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.

Sardinia, (^xttt Satttialtotes Jjicta a similitutiine jneKis fjumani

e^^^°^' ^^ ortente patet MMW^ passuum, atr occiftmte

HEfllB', a meriuie lEIfFH, a sejitentrione Slf,

These dimensions do not agree exactly with those given by
PlLtiy, ui. 84, or by Isidore, xiv. 6, | 40. The reference to
the name Sandaliotis is borrowed from Capella, vi. 645.
Adjacent to Sardinia is CTotStCa, with the description, —
multiS promunrtOrtiS attgulosa, referring to its numerous
promontories, borrowed from Isidore, xiv. 6, § 42, and with

the dimensions, — longituUim M, passuum, latttuUine

IE, as in Pliny, iii. 80. Above Corsica lies JHctUS, the
Metisa of Pliny, ui. 79, and the Metina of Capella, vi. 643,
an island at the mouth of the Ehone. On the other side of
Sardinia, between it and the African coast, in a part of the
sea where no islands really exist, the map exhibits two
parallel rows, one contaitiing Caul, probably intended for
Gaulos or Gozo (Mela, ii. 7) ; ^ilaca, which we cannot
identify; Colufttatia, Formentara, one of the Balearic
group (Solin. 23, § 11); (EfiiSSa, perhaps intended for
Enusis (Capella, vi. 645), off the S.W. coast of Sardinia; 3B05
. Sipca, no doubt intended for Hypaea, one of the Stoechades
(Capella, vi. 643) ; CHta ^ompontatta, evidently POMPONI-
ANA, one of the Stoechades or Hy^res group, off the coast of
France (CapeUa, vi. 643) : And in the second row— |||tlta,
possibly Melita or Malta; Jicaria, adjacent to the S.E.
angle of Sardinia (CapeUa, vi. 645) ; PlattaSta, a small
island off the E. coast of Corsica (Capella, vi. 644) ; Stipa,
mentioned by Capella, vi. 644, probably ia consequence of
a misreading of Pliny iii. 80 ; and StOpcettteS, possibly a
mistake for Stcechades.
Liparese To the E. of Corsica, above Metus, we see ILtpata, the
InsTilse. chief member of the ^olian group, of which it is said, —
i&tHiXZ tnSUlee nobem SOnt, in respect to the number the

MEDITEEEANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 115

author follows Isidore, while Solinus and Capella state seven. Liparese
Some of the lesser isles of this group are placed on the map, Insulse.

viz. grcrasia (Theeasia); Heocotea (Leucothea) ; Stongtle

(Steongyle), StromhoU; '^izx^, Vulcano ; ^SiSUa (Eei-
cusa); and Kttgula ©ittttttfC (Didyme) — the two first
being placed near Sardinia, the next three between Sicily
and Africa, and the last between Sicily and Italy. We
have also to notice a second jficatta, of which we know
nothing; JfenCUSa, Phcenicusa (Capella, vi. 648); ©alata,
mentioned by Capella, vi. 645, as near Sardinia; .SttijJOtlfS,
perhaps intended for the Osteodes of Mela, ii. 7 ; and Jegtia,
probably a defective form of Hepilestias (Isid. xiv. 6, § 3 7).

Sicily (the name is accidentally omitted) is, easily recog- Sicily.
nised by its triangular form, to which it owed its ancient
name of Triquetra. It is placed in that part of the sea
which lies between Eome and Carthage. An inscription,
apparently drawn from Capella, vi. 646, gives its dimen-
sions as follows:— a ^rforo in Pati)mttttt [Pachynum]
m^Tm, igtttt i [inde] alj HiilEUm [LUybseum] W&, ixCaz
atr ^Pelorum fflmUl* Mount iEtna ((!5ti)na) is placed
in the centre of the isle, with flames issuing from its sum-
mit. A river named Cattca is represented as rising on it,
and flowing eastward to the sea, in the position of the Asines.
Possibly the name arises out of some confusion with that
of the town Catana (called in the map Canna), which really
lay at the foot of ^tna. The promontories are represented
as mountains, with the names ^doruttt, ILtftCUttt [Lily-
bseum], and ^atljtttUm. The form " Libeum " appears in
a copy of Solinus, 5, § 2. The most observable point in
the names of the towns is the modern form Palermo, or
at least a close approximation to it, ^alcma, instead of
the ancient Pakoemus. Higden {Polychron. i. 30) uses a
similar form, which had been introduced into England by

116 MEDITEEEANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS..

Sicily, the Crusaders. A similar instance of a cliange of the n
into I occurs in EusciNO, which has become Boussillon.
With regard to the other towns there is nothing to notice.
They are SiiraCUSa, ^i'bfSi (probably Hybla, which appears
in Antonine, Itin. 89), fLttita (Lilybseum — for the form
compare the name of the promontory), ^ZSWHU, CantlE
(Catajsta), and <^QxiQent (Agrigentum). Between Sicily
and Italy are placed S&tUa* (Scilla) and (tTariftlliS, the
rock and the whirlpool, whose fancied proximity was the
source of anxiety to ancient navigators. Both are repre-
sented as monsters, — Charybdis as a coiled figure, with a
grotesque head protuding from the open end, and SciLla as
a head, with open jaws, displaying rocks instead of teeth.
The latter is similarly depicted in the " Imago Mimdi " map.
A fish, resembling an eel, is depicted near this. On the
opposite side of Sicily, off prom. Pachyniun, the isle STajJ;
gUS reaUy represents the peninsula of Thapsus, close to
Syracuse, which Isidore (xiv. 6, § 35) describes as an island
1 stades from the mainland.
Crete. dCtrta is a very conspicuous object on the map, with

the Labyrinth depicted in a number of concentric circles.
Its dimensions are given in accordance with Pliny, iv. 58,

and Capeiia, vi. 659 : — Ensttia Jjec tn lonsttubtTte ioSI,

in latttUlltne E* The celebrated Mt. Ida (gia) is duly
depicted, and the Labyrinth has an inscription relative to its
reputed construction by Dasdalus : — ILaftorintUS ill CSt
tlOniUS ffijllili [DsedalL]. Whether our cartographer be-
lieved that the Labyrinth was a contemporaneous fact we
do not pretend to say, but such a belief survived to the
16th century, as may be seen from the Ujphemerid. Sanctce

* The idea that Scylla was in the midst of the sea prevailed extensively in
the Middle Ages, Thus Gervase of Tilbury describes Scylla and Charybdis as
equally "marince voragines." — Ot. Imp. ii. 12.

MEDITEEEANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 117

TerrcB, in Fez's Thesaurus, Part ii. p. 467. Of the Cretan Cretee
towns we have ©Ottttia, ffitliona (Cydonia), and a third,
with a name imperfectly written, which reads as IKtitttS,
and may be intended for Myeina (Phn. iv. 5 9), though we
can assign no reason why so unimportant a place should be
noticed. Between Crete and the coast of Africa we have
JKaritlta, for which we can find no authority: jKnttX,
probably Meninx, commemorated by ancient geographers as
the abode of the Lotophagi [see below JS^na] ; ©tOtUC'iJtS
JlTSUla, transplanted here from the coast of Apulia, and
famous in antiquity for a species of sea-fowl, which were
supposed to be the metamorphosed companions of Diomede
(Solin. 2, I 45) ; and JH^loS, one of the Cyclades in the
^geean Sea. Above Crete, to the right hand, is the isle
of ^alijJpSO (Calypsxts), properly speaking near prom.
Lacinium, on the coast of Italy, but placed in its present
position in accordance with Orosius, i. 2. It was identified
with the Homeric Ogygia (Plin. iii. 96). Between Crete
and Italy we observe two fish, one unnamed and resembling
a timny, the other entitled f&.\[z% JKatiS, and evidently
intended for a sword-fish, a sword being represented as
attached to its gill. Above these is an island, shaped like
a vessel, " .ScopuIUS air motruttt na&tS," in reference to
Prom. Phalacrimn on Corcyra, which bore some resemblance
to a vessel, and was supposed to be the ship of Ulysses
metamorphosed (SoUn. 11, § 2; Capella, vi. 658). The
rock appears to be figured in the " Imago Mundi " map.
Near it is the island Catta, possibly intended for Icaria,
though far removed from the true position of that island.

Diverging from the open sea to the area which represents Isles
the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, we notice Eajint!)US, Zante, ; °^ t^^

.A_fi Tl fl i"l f

CraSStO|)ia, an island noticed in conjunction with Zacynthus „
by Orosius, i. 2, and intended for Corcyra, which had a pro-

118 MEDITEEEANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.

Isles
of the
Adriatic

montory and a town Cassiope ; compare Antonine, Itin.
521, where, for " Insula Cassiope insula Goreiro," it has been
Sea. proposed to read "Insula Cassiope sive Corcira" (Parthey

and Finder's «d) ; see also Qeog. Baven. v. 22 ; Isid. xiv.
4, § 14 — "Habet [Achaia] ab occasu Cephaloniam et Cassio-
pam insulas," and JEthicus, caps. 86, 101. Marino Sanuto
places the Cassiopse Insulse (he implies the existence of a
group) to the W. of Achaia ; they could thus answer to the
Ionian Islands (Gesta Dei, p. 286). Subsequently he men-
tions these islands by their modern names, as well as Corfu.
Higher up the gulf come C^pfjalmta, Cephalenia ; CcjtUc,
for which we can suggest no identification; STnitCta,
Venice, the insular character of which is indicated with
considerable exaggeration in the map; and the Libumian
Islands, seven in number, occupied (it is stated) by

Venetians: — Jttsulee ILiiumice ¥M. quas Fettetict in*

ijaftitattt. These line the' coast of Dalmatia, and were no
doubt under the dominion of Venice at the period of the
map.
Cyclades. Eetuming to the Mediterranean we find the group of
the Cyclades represented by a large circular island sur-
rounded by a fringe of islets, in accordance with the received
explanation of the name Cyclades. The inscription records
that the number of the group is 53, as given in ^thicus,
cap. 94, and that the group has a length of 700 miles from
N. to S., and of 200 from E. to W., which numbers are
taken from Phny, iv. 71, but really include the Sporades
as well as the Cyclades : — " MtloS inSUla ilt VXttiiO Cicia;

torum situs : sunt autem Ciclatcs %IM. ^ septcn=
trione in nteritriem mia^ar, a& oriente in occasum ffiffi

miliaria fjaftcnt," To the right hand of Delos there is a
figure of a mermaid with a mirror in her right hand.
Further to the right hand is a name which reads like

MEDITEERANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 119

WitWCiR, perhaps Icaria is intended, which gave name Cywlades.
to the Icarium Mare, though tradition attributed the names
both of the sea and of the island to Icarus, the son of Dae-
dalus (Soiin. 21, § 30). Off the coast of Egypt is §SitnSL,
which is said to be so called from a freedman Menus, who
was buried there : — a Plm0 lUiSXtO in tS. SCpuItO ; the
name is identical with that which Solinus (27, § 40) uses
for Meninx, but we are imable to account for the reference
to the freedman Menus ; the name " Mena " also appears in the
" Imago Mundi " map. Opposite the mouth of the Nile is
an island named CattOpUS, with a description of it as a
great mercantile emporium: — IttSUla tJtttgStma Otttnt

^entxz mzxcium replens oxbem terrarum, Canopus was,

properly speaking, a town at the Canopic mouth of the
Nile, and the notion of its being an island proper, as shown
in the map, is derived from the words of Solinus, 31, § 1,
" dictum a Canopo Menelai gubernatore sepulto in ea insula
quae ostium 'Nili facit." Compare Pliny, v. 128, where it is
described as "insularum ante Asiam prima," in reference to
the boundary between Asia and Africa. It is represented as
an island in the " Imago Mundi " map, and iu the " Jerome "
map in the British Museum (MS. 10,049). The town had
sunk into utter decay at the commencement of the Christian
era, and its reputation for wealth should properly have been
attributed to Alexandria. Canopus retaiaed its importance
among geographers as marking the boundary between Africa
and Asia [Soliaus, I. c] The name of the adjacent island,
SCaCtttra, is unknown to us.

Tumiiig north we meet with Carpatag, Caepathus Rhodes,
SImrpanto, UttUC [a] JKaU Carpatum tricttur (Isid. xiv. 6, etc.
§ 24) ; then in order, ^0UtOttta, which we cannot identify;
iS^aXOS ; i^0Otl, probably los, which may have been known
to our cartographer by its modern designation Mo ( = h"liji) ;

120 MEDITEEKANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS.

Rhodes, 3^otios ittsula Mtmcuttt [? Phcenicum] columptta Uitisstma,

• Bhodes, with its Colossus, which is duly depicted, — though

it had fallen down within 56 years of its erection, circ. B.C.
224, the memory of the Colossus was rife in the Middle
Ages, so much so that Ssewulf and MaudeviUe regarded the
Rhodians as the Colossians to whom St. Paul wrote his
Epistle (Early Travels, pp. 33, 140, Bohn) ; " (BViMtK in-
SUla f^Clatie [Helladi] proXtma," a notice which calls for
no remark beyond the use of the term " Hellas " for Attica ;
ILcSilOS ; CijJtUS, of which the dimensions are given, "itt

langttulitn0 fflum miliarium, in latituiine cix milt=

ariuttt" (varying from Plin. v. 129, in regard to length,
which the latter gives as 162 nules), with its two chief
towns SalamiS and ^apfjOS, the latter famous as the seat
of the worship of Venus ; KtVLZtiOS, placed in the long arm
which represents the eastern side of the ^gean Sea and the
northern half of the Levant, its position being decided by the
proximity of Troy ; 0UCatta, apparently to be sought for
off the coast of Pamphylia, but we know nothing to answer
to it ; iLctnptlOS, Lemnos, over which an animal of dubious
character is figured, possibly intended to account for the
adjacent name Egea, though it bears but little resemblance
to a she-goat (Plin. iv.. 51 ; Isidore, xiii. 16, § 5); a sharp-
nosed fish is also depicted in this part of the sea ; (lijOOS,
placed in the part of the sea which represents the "HeUes-
pontus ; " whether Cos or Chios is intended we do not
venture to decide, either being equally remote from the
Hellespont.

Lastly, in the Euxine we have to notice CatlOSpatOS,
opposite the mouth of the Danube ; STfjaSOS, transplanted
from the iEgsean Sea ; ^atfjttlOS, which Higden (i. 8), on
the authority of Isidore (though in this he appears to be
mistaken), also transplants from the -^geean to the Euxine,

MEDITEEEANEAN AND EUXINE SEAS. 121

(compare in this matter the map in the MS. of St. Jerome, Bhodes.
British Museum, No. 10,049); ^cl)iUea, a small island off etc.
the mouth of the Danube, reputed to be the spot to which
Thetis transported the body of Achilles, with a temple
which no bird approached (Sohn. 19, § 1; Plin. iv. 93);
^lloJJECtea, probably Alopecia, an island in the Palus
Mseotis, at the mouth of the Tanais ; CatatttbiS, properly
speaking a promontory on the coast of Asia Minor, and so
described by Sohnus, 44, § 1 ; lastly, ^EtiagorgCa, probably
Phanagoeia, on the Cimmerian Bosporus, between the
branches of the river Anticites, hence described as on an
island by Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 8, and others.

CHAPTEE VII.
ETJEOPE.

General Description— Spain— Italy— Istria and Liburnia— Greece— Macedonia
— Illyricum and Dardania— Thrace — Mcesia— Dacia^-Bulgaria^-Alania.

The boundary of Europe on the side of Asia has akeady been
noticed in Chap. I. (p. 24). The form of the continent, as
given on the map, is at first sight hardly recognisable. The
peninsular character of Spain and Italy is impaired by the
omission of the intervening seas. The distiactive form of
the ^gsean Sea being absent, we miss, in consequence, the
peninsula occupied by Thface. The undue prolongation of
the ^g^an and the Hellespont throws the Euxine too far
north, and contracts the breadth of the continent between
the Euxine and the Northern Ocean. The Danube is thus
necessarily thrown too far north, and the proportions^beitween
the north and the south of the continent are thereby impaired.
In other quarters we may note the conventional mode
employed in the delineation of the Baltic Sea (SttTUS
(BtvmmkuS) and the Bay of Biscay (^quitaitiniS .SmUS),
— the outline of the seas being in each case left imperfect
in order that the name might be iutroduced. An attempt
has apparently been made to represent the sinuosities of
the Baltic Sea ; but its size is understated, unless we include
in it the sea which in the map intervenes between Norway
and the mainland. The North Sea is crowded out in con-
sequence of the space assigned to the British Isles. The
angle now occupied by Holland is unnoticed. The British
Isles protrude southwards nearly to Spain, and the opposite

ETJEOPE. 123

coast of France is carried down in a parallel line, so that
the angle formed by Brittany disappears. The Bay of
Biscay is very much curtailed of its proper dimensions, and
consequently the north coast of Spain disappears, while
the western coast sweeps round with a gradual curve to the
Strait of Gibraltar.

With regard to the physical geography, we have to
notice among mountain-chains the Pyrenees and the Alps,
the positions of which are correctly represented in reference
to the neighbouring countries. The Carpathians are also
entered, but it is clear that the cartographer had a very
inadequate notion of their true position, or of their relation
to the general mountain-system of the continent. The
Balkan is omitted; the Apennines and the mountains of
Greece are very imperfectly represented. In respect to
rivers, we may make the general observation that almost aU
the large rivers of the continent are noticed, with the excep-
tion of those in Northern Eussia. The omission of the
Tagus in Spain, is noticeable. In some cases, as the Ehine
and the rivers of France, the affluents are also introduced.
The Danube is adequately represented, with its affluents
as far as Hungary, beyond which point the entries are
erroneous. The interpolation of two imaginary rivers, the
Coruus and Arfaxat, between the Dnieper and the Don, is
farther noticeable.

The length of Europe on its southern side is given in an
inscription borrowed, though somewhat incorrectly, from

Pliny, vi. 206, 207: — HongituUo CHuropc a6 ostio Mto=
tissts [Mseotide] usque aU ©aittanum prtum Uxztto
cursu terciES quater xwm [iii'Mil passxium. WinU
bersus autem circuittts per sinus suos inter ilHuotum
[Mseotidem] lacum cmtks quinquagies septies nona^

ginta milia sunt paSSUUm. [The cartographer has

124 EUEOPE.

apparently read CCiLUEE IC instead of EMJMM, tlrns
making the amount 15,790 instead of 10,059]. Cum

ipsa JEeotilie ccnties quittquagics IMM. [vicies bis]

nonasinta milia paSSUUm. The first of these calcula-
tions is that of Polybius, measuring the direct distance
from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Sea of Azov; the
second is that of Agrippa, between the same points, but
including the sinuosities ; the third is that of Artemidorus
for the same.
Hispania. We commence our survey of the continent at the point
nearest to Africa, namely, the Spanish peninsula. This assumes
a triangular form, in accordance with Oros. i. 2 ; but the direc-
tions and proportions of the sides are wholly misrepresented.
The converging protrusions of the Bay of Biscay and the Chilf
of Lyons are omitted, and the peninsular character is conse-
quently lost. The Pyrenees form a long line, running N. and
S. rather than E. and W. An imperfect red-letter name p r
pilott is apparently intended to designate a portion of the
range ; but whether this refers to Pompelo, Pamplona, the
town which commands the most frequented route between
Gaul and Spain, we are unable to say. The well known
height of Calpe, Gihraltar, is delineated ; but by a remark-
able oversight the name of Abyla (under the form JSttta, for
Abinna, as in Solinus, 23, § 13) is transferred to it from
the opposite coast of Africa. Of the great rivers of the
peninsula we meet with the '^i^sZX^ Bhro ; the 3SorttS,
Guadalquivir; the ©oriUS, Douro ; and the JHtttteUS,
Minho. The (jTalCttta,* between the Boetis and the Durius,
may possibly represent the Guadiana. The omission of the

* Santarem (ii. 296) suggests that the name is borrowed from that of the
town Carteia. This seems improhable. We would rather assume that our
cartographer has Uundered over the name (then comparatively new) Guadiana,
made up of the Arabic prefix Wady, and the classical Alias.

ETJEOPE. 125

Tagus, which name occurs in Italy, has been already adverted Hispania.
to. On the other hand, two ajBluents are assigned to the
Ehro, for which we can find no authority — the liaiXUS,
which also appears in the " Imago Mundi " map, and the
JHoritlUS, which may possibly refer to the Sierra Morena,
the ancient M. Maeianus. The political divisions noticed
are l^igjiania (S^itZXiOX, " Hither Spain," the eastern of the
two provinces into which the Eomans origiaally divided the
country ; and ?^iSpatXta EufetiOt, which is here substituted
for the Hispania Ulteeioe of the Komans. To these we
have to add, as an apparently provincial designation, ^atfjC
or ^afo, placed E. of the upper Ebro, a name which we
caimot explain, unless it refers to the unimportant town of
Jacca in those parts. The kingdom of ^ra^Otta is trans-
ferred to the N. of the Pyrenees, between the river ^ttax
(probably the Atax or Ande) and the Mediterranean. There
is a certain degree of historical truth in this arrangement,
inasmuch as Boussillon, at the date of the map, belonged to
Aragon. The name CotUpOStU*, Compostella, appears as a
district name, in consequence of its great importance as a
place of pilgrimage in those days. The towns are very
imperfectly given — a circumstance which may partly be
accounted for by the presence of Mohammedans ia the
southern * part of the peninsula. Conspicuous among the
objects of topographical interest is the STempIUJll; SattCtt
Sacoit, Santiago de Compostella, containing the shrine of the
Apostle James, whose name and title " Jacomo Apostolo"
were abbreviated into " Compostella." This was one of the
most frequented places of pilgrimage of that day. Connected

* So little did English geographers know of Spain, that Higden {Polychron.
i. 29) desorihes the Saracens as occupying the eastern rather than the southern
provinces of Spain ; and a statement to this effect is entered on the larger
Higden map in the British Museum.

126 EUEOPE.

lispania. with it was the port of M-Padron, where the Apostle's hody
came to land, and whence it was transferred to Santiago.
This place is designated by a Pharos, elaborately drawn, with
the name ^pCtOtxa,* with which we may compare the form
Lo Peyron in the map of Andreas Benincasa, 1476 ; and
Pawn in the Begistrum PtoUmcei, 1486. In the same part
of the peninsula we may identify iStagaria with Beacaea
Augusta, Braga, one of the five original metropolitan sees
of Spaia. We may further notice SCoIrtUtIt, Toledo, the
seat of the primacy from the 7th century; SDcrtaCOtta,
Tarragona, another of the original metropolitan sees ; 21^01=
toga (the modern designation is observable), probably
noticed for its celebrity in the Moorish wars; and
CCotlJUia, Cordova, which succeeded Carthagena as a metro-
politan see. JSaSClla is probably iatended for Seville,
another of the original metropolitan sees, though the form
corresponds neither with the ancient (HispaKs) or the modern
name of that- town. With regard to the other names we
can offer no suggestion as to |HutlJUaCta ; "we should expect
to meet with Emeeita Augusta, Merida, as being one of
the five original metropolitan sees, but we cannot twist the
name into the form Murduacia ; perhaps the name may have
something to do with Murcia, though we doubt it : still less
can we accept Santarem's identification of it with Munda.
38itUntCa may possibly be a confusion with the name of
the province BjETICA, which appears in the form Betiria in
Higden's map, or it may be a reference to B^etueia, which
was a subdivision of Bsetica. ®alCTlCta answers in position
to Valentia, which may have attained notoriety as having
been recovered from the Mohammedans in 1238; and
Klfttia may possibly be Ileeda, Lerida. Three places are

* Santarem (ii. 298) explains the name as = "per omnia (pourtous)," and
identifies tlio Pharos with that of Brigantia.

EUEOPE. 127

delineated but not named — one on a height between the Hispania.

rivers Bsetis and Calcnia, the others to the E. of the Ebro.

The omission of Cartagena and Lisbon is noticeable. The

name @atl0S occnrs on an island in the Strait of Gibraltar ;

but the cartographer did not identify it with the modern

Cadiz, or indeed regard it as the name of a town at all.

In natural history we have a picture of the Genet, named

^CttCiS, the fur of which was much prized in the Middle

Ages.

The peninsula of Italy is represented in the map by a Italia,
broad protuberance between the Mediterranean Sea and the
Adriatic, The line of the Alps is delineated with compara-
tive accuracy^ as extending in a curve between the two seas
from the neighbourhood of Marseilles to the sources of the
Timavus. The Apennines are delineated, though not named/'
as lying between Genua and Beneventum. Of special heights
we meet with ©atgatlUS, Gargano, which forms a marked
promontory on the Adriatic coast, and J^lottS j^icfjagit,
which we believe to be intended for Monte Cassino, the site
of the famous Benedictine monastery, though it is difficult
to account for the change of the name into that of the well-
known Bishop of Eeims. We can only say that it is hardly
more incorrect than the form Mons Cassise, which Hoveden
uses for the same spot (Chron. ii. 54).

The entries of rivers are numerous. The course of the
IPalJUS (Po) is drawn with tolerable correctness, with its
affluents the 2I^icitlU0, Ticino, and the Mincio (not named),
which flows from 5LECUS iSftiacUS, L. of Guarda, the only one
of the Italian lakes noticed ; near its mouth the name Padus
again occurs, with the addition of its poetical name Eridanus: —

^atrug qui rt ©riHanus (Solin. 2, § 25). The SDarus,

* An imperfect red-letter name near Bononia may perhaps apply to this
range : the letters read as a p p S.

128 EUEOPE.

Italia. Taro, which is, properly speaking, an affluent of the Po on
its right baiik, is represented in the map as flowing into the
Mediterran3an near Genoa. Eastward of the Po we must
identify the ^tlSa with the Athesis or Adige, from the cir-
cumstance of Verona being placed on its banks; we are
unable to account for the form of the name. The STitHa&ttS
Timao, at the head of the Adriatic, owes its celebrity and the
abnormal size assigned to it on the map to the circumstance
of its welling up suddenly with a full stream from several
springs, so that, though only a mile long, it is broad and
deep enough to bear vessels (c/. Virg. ^m,. i. 245). On the
coast of the Adriatic we notice the ptSCErta (probably the
PiSAUEUs) and the ^mfiUUS (intended for AuFiDUs) ; and
on the western coast of the peninsula the JK^tSiUrUS, not
the river of historical celebrity, but an unimportant stream
which CapeUa (§ 648) notices as lying opposite the ^olian
Isles ; the ^kt, without doubt the SiLARUS or SiLEE (Lucan,
Phars. ii. 426), Sele, to which the SatttUS is assigned as a
tributary, though ia reality it reaches the Chilf of Naples by
an independent course ; the Vult0Enus, not named, but to
be identified as such by the position of Capua ; the 2Ct60rtS,
to which by some inexplicable confusion the 2CagUS is
assigned as an affluent in the position of the Clanis ; the
Spates, which we cannot identify, in Etruria ; and the ^rtta
JSIanca, doubtless the Arno, though we are unable to
account for the addition of "Blanca" to its name;* and
lastly, a river unnamed between Luca and Luna.

The names of the political divisions belong for the most
part to ancient geography : under this head we may specify
^IpCS ©OtttC^, more correctly Alpes Cotti^, a province in

* Is it possible that the author was aifected by his familiarity with the
name Acquablanca, by which a Bishop and a Dean of Hereford were known
in the 13th century ?

EUEOPE. 129

the division of Constantine, occupying the place of the older Italia.
Liguria (Paulus Diaconus, ii. 16); jFlatllttlia (properly-
speaking the eastern portion of Gallia Cispadana, though
transposed in the map to Transpadana), a province in Con-
stantine's division, so named after the Via Flaminia, which
traversed that part of Italy; Apulia, Calabria, BrUtit,
HUCatlia, and CatUpanta, names which call for no remark ;
and KuStiK, which took the place of Eteueia in Constantine's
division, and was adopted by mediseval geographers partly on
account of the supposed derivation of the name from the Latin
thus, "frankincense" (Isid. xiv. 4, § 20; Paul. Diac. ii. 20).
^iSCittUS, near the Adriatic, is probably intended for Picenum.
Of later designations we may specially notice that of Zom-
lardy, fLotl^Oftatllia, to which are added the somewhat
obscure words fjfC tt Itgtta, probably referring to the name
LiGUEiA, which in Constantine's division was transferred to
Gallia Transpadana, and thus coincided with Lomhardy. A
district name, Ualia, appears between the upper Tiber and
Vulturnus : the only explanation that we can offer is that it
is intended for the province Valeria, which Paulus Diaconus
{H. L. ii. 20) describes as lying between Umbria, Campania,
and Picenum. The name ^lltia, near the upper Tiber, in
the position of Umbria, is yet more intractable : the classical
Adeia was a town near the Adriatic. A red-letter name N.
of the Vulturnus, which may be read as SCcrrtS or ^TcrtU
defies identification.

The names of the towns are for the most part drawn
from ancient authorities, and especially from Antonine's
Itinerary. The name most clearly referable to a post-
classical age is ^ajlia, which appears to have been sub-
stituted for TiciNUM towards the close of the Lombard period.
Paulus Diaconus already {H. L. ii. 15), uses the modern
name : — " Ticinus quse alio nomine Papia appellatur." We

I

130 EUEOPE.

Italia, may further conceive that Sialerua and jPtOteTltta are men-
tioned in reference to their mediseval, rather than their
ancient importance; and again, ^UtlEtttltS, if this can be
identified with Todi. The towns are grievously misplaced,
and it would he endless to rectify in our survey all the mis-
takes that have been made. EoME naturally occupies a
conspicuous place in the map, being represented by a grand
edifice, and its position in the world being set forth in a
leonine verse : ''"

*' i^oma caput munlii tenet axW frena rotunlii/'

Turning to the N. of Italy we notice JEelJtOlanUin {Milan) ;
SlerOM, which still retains its ancient name ; ^rttltttlUtn
{Bimini), which should have been placed on the sea coast ;
S^aulje, originally Laus Pompeia, but as early as the time
of Antonine's Itinerary changed into the form as it appears
on the map, and which is followed in the modern Lodi;
3S0tt0ttta, Bologna, the seat of a university, which was ■
largely frequented by English students about 1200; ^la=
Centta, Biacenza; FerCClUS, properly Veecell^, but
VerceUis occurs in some copies of Antonine's Itinerary (344,
347); ^imrelja, properly Epoeedia, now Jyrea ; ^Itgugta,
no doubt Augusta PejETOEIA, Aosta, on the route to the St.
Bernard passes ; and ^apia, Bavia, which is placed close to
the Alps. The towns of Venetia are noticed under the head
of Histria, in which country they are included in the map.
On the coast line, commencing at the head of the Adriatic, we

have J^abmna ; ^ncona ; Calaferia, for which, as a town,

we can find no authority (the province of that name is else-
where entered) ; iSruntttSlUm, Brindisi ; ^irotttUW, Hy-
DRUNTUM, Otranto ; KaxtYltXlVX, Taranto ; ILeugaS, an entry

' M. D'Avezac in his Essay (Sur La Mappemondc, p. 13) says that this line
is borrowed from the Otia Jm]}eriaUa of Gervase of Tilbury. "We cannot verify
tha reference, as the printed work is taken from an imperfect MS.

EUEOPE. 131

erroneously borrowed from Antonine's Itinerary, 48 9,. where ItaUa.
" littoraria Leiicas " is mentioned in reference to the pro-
montory now called Capo di Leuca (there was a town
named Leuca near the promontory, biit it is not noticed
by any of the authorities known to our cartographer) ;
CotOnta, intended for Ceotona; 3^eon, or Itett, an im-
perfect name, probably representing Ehegium, which, in Anto-
nine's Itinerary, assumes usually the form Eegio, and in one
case Eeio ; Sonfmta, intended for Consentia, Cosenza, the
capital of the Bruttii ; (^aSEtl, possibly a mistake for Cau-
LON, which is mentioned by Mela (ii. 4) in connection with
Consentia ; Salcma, the ancient Saleknum, a place of great
fame in the Middle Ages for its school of medicine, as weU
as for its commerce; ^eapoltS, Naples ; ^utCOliS, Pozzuoli ;
©Stia S^iiCttS, the port of Eome, situated at the period of
the map on the left arm of the river, at Ostia ; Hutta, in
Tuscany, a town never of any importance, and at the date of
the map in a state of utter decay, probably introduced in
accordance with Antonine's Itinerary ; ^^UCa, I/ucca, a more
important place in mediaeval than in classical times ; and
®0ttUa, Genoa. In the interior — ^tSa, previously to 1406
one of the chief maritime cities of Italy; E^UlJJrttTta, per-
haps TuDEE, Todi, which might have been described as
" Tudertina civitas," a considerable place in the Middle
Ages; PerUSium, Perugia; JHotClttia, Florence, a place
almost unknown in the classical period, which rose to power
in the 11th century of our era ; i^0aU0, probably intended for
Eeate ; 33cn0&0ttttt1tt, the capital of the Lombard duchy in
this part of the peninsula, and also well known in classical
literature, possibly also noticed in accordance with Soliaus, 2,
§ 23, who says that the umbilicus of Italy was in its territory;
Capua, which at the period of the map existed on the site
of the earlier Casilinum, the classical Capua having been

132

EUEOPE.

Histria
cum Li-
burnia.

Italia, destroyed a.d. 840 ; and |^ola, frequently noticed in the
Eoman annals, but of little importance after its destruction
by Genseric, a.d. 455.

The province of Histria does not appear to have been
regarded by our cartographer as belonging to Italy. It is
coupled with Liburnia, f^igtria CUtlt iLi&Umta, and is
placed decidedly E. of the Adriatic, its true position being
between the Gulfs of Trieste and Quarnero at the head of
the Adriatic. ISTor are we aware that Liburnia at any
period formed a recognised political division, though the
term occurs to designate the country of the Liburni, between
the rivers Arsia and Titius, in the province of Dalmatia.
A series of towns is represented as lining the Adriatic in
Liburnia, and the river Timavus in Histria. The towns
assigned to Histria really belonged to Venetia. They are —
^quilcga, at the head of the Adriatic, in classical times the
capital of Venetia, at a later period one of the chief cities of
the Eoman Empire untiL its destruction by AttHa in 452,
thenceforward a place of ecclesiastical importance ; CotlCOrs
Ilia, ^Iticium, meaning, no doubt, Altinum, and ^ata=
ijlUtlt, Padua — three towns which are placed on the left
bank of the Timavus, in the order of Antoniue's Itinerary :
they reaUy lay westward of Aquileia, on the road to central
Italy. In Liburnia we meet with ^lirEpoIa and ©riilXUttt,
which Santarem compares with Oetopula and Delminium
respectively : we should be rather inclined to see ia Adre-
pola a mistaken reference to the "A Pola " {v. I. de Apola)
of Antonine's Itinerary, 496 : with regard to the name Del-
minium, our cartographer doubtless met with it ia some
copies of Isidore, xiv. 4, § 8, where the received text has
Dehni, converted in "Imago Mundi" into Dalam (i. 18):
we cannot otherwise account for the introduction of Del-
minium. The remaining towns are — ©uractUm, the classi-

EUROPE. 133

cal Dykrachium, Durazzo; and ^ulOM, the classical AuLON, Libixr-
Valona, near the border of Epirus. Jiia.

We have ah-eady had occasion to notice the gross igno- Greece.
ranee which oiir cartographer displays as to the geography
of the classical land of Greece (Introd. p. xxiv.) It is the
more surprising from the circumstance that Greece had been
re-opened to "Western Europe by the Crusaders, and had in-
deed been the seat of a Latin kingdom in the 13 th century.
It should in fairness be stated that this ignorance is not
altogether peculiar to our cartographer : Higden's description
{Polychron. i. 23) is equally remarkable; and even Isidore's
statements, on which Higden relied, are open to exception.
The outline of the peninsula, as represented on the map, is
hardly recognisable : Peloponnesus appears as a rounded
protuberance, with the title JtlSUlSl: the Saronic Gulf is
shown with the title SiltUS ; but the Corinthian Gulf is
apparently transferred far away to the north, though there is
no name by which it can be identified.

Of the famous mountains of Greece we notice ©UttlpUS,
placed on the border of Thrace, in conformity with Isidore,
xiv. 8, § 9, who places it between Macedonia and Thrace ;
©SSa, removed to the interior ; fLibotUS (can this refer some-
how to Othrys?); (Elicotl, Helicon; PamaSUS ; and Jin=
IJUS, which probably represents Pindus. The range of
CEta, which formed the famous pass of Thermopylse is trans-
ported to the interior, where it is named CtttttOptU, Of
the rivers we may notice — the ^ttlEUS or Peneus; the
i^CrntCSSUS, rising in HeUcon, but erroneously depicted as
flowing into the ^g«an ; and the ^tttacUS, on the western
coast, perhaps intended for the Inachus. (Solin. 7, § 10;
iEthic. cap. 86.) The two nameless rivers near Parnassus
may possibly be the two whose waters were credited with
the property of dyeing the wool of sheep, in the one case

134 EUEOPE.

Greece, blacky in the other white. (Isidore, xiii. 13, § 5 ; Higden, i.
23.)

The name Grsecia does not appear on the map ; and it
is doubtful whether any general designation is assigned to
the country, though Ecaga may be intended to serve such
a purpose, AcHAiA being used in the Middle Ages in a wider
sense than as a provincial name. Of the provinces we have
EijeSSalia, IpirUS, Epieus, and Hellat, meaning Attica,
which is termed HeUas by Isidore (xiv. 4, § 10), Helladia
by Higden (i. 23), and EUedas by ^thicus (cap. 78).

The towns are in many cases difficult to identify : we

recognise ^tfjmsf, Corttttfjus, Harts, laeissa, ^imsta,

Eleusis, and ^PattaS, which last name may have become
famUiar from the place having been the chief naval station
of the French knights in the Crusades. Delphi is no doubt
intended under the mistaken title of ©eIoS Otaculuttt
^polOTtiS, the oracular deity himself, or his representative,
being depicted by an ill-favoured profile of a human head.
Turning to the other names, we think that CEttCta, on one
side of Parnassus, may be intended for Cieeha, the port of
Delphi ; and ^tSa, on the other side of the mountain, may
possibly be Wysa, on Mount Helicon. ^tgO, near Patras,
we presume to be Aegos, transferred from the eastern to the
western coast of Peloponnesus. 1LEUSto0, farther down
the coast, is intended for Leuctea (for which a v. I. in Solinus,
7, § 7, gives Zeustrae), a town of Laconia, which Solinus
apparently regarded as the scene of the great battle ta B.C.
371 between the Thebans and Spartans; whUe SciO0tta
may be either Sicyonia or Scioessa, noticed by Solinus as
near Patras. Whether the town l^ellalja is introduced in
order to account for the name of the province, on the prin-
ciple that all district names were derived from those of the
towns, we cannot say; nor, again, whether Wiftlt&, on the

EUEOPE. 135

eastern coast, represents Theb^e. As to the names ^art|)a=
llUS, Crampmim, and Eubalum, on the western coast, we
can offer no suggestion whatever.

The general position assigned to JHaCEtJOttta in the Mace-
map is tolerably correct, but it is difficult to understand donia.
how far the cartographer distinguished between it and
Thessaly, which is placed K of the Peneus, and apparently
in the midst of Macedonia. We shall assume that this last
was an oversight, and that the sea-coast towns were intended
to belong to Macedonia. In this division we have the
famous mountain Athos, depicted with its proper conical
form, but named '^tfjIaS or Atlas, the name beiag confused
with that of the famous range in Africa. None of the rivers
are given; an abbreviated red-letter inscription, ttttittEC
gitlUS, near the Peneus, is probably intended for the Sinus
Thermaicus, into which that river falls. Of the towns we
have STfjCSSalOtXica, Saloniici, misplaced in the interior;
IHaCUlca, a name entirely unknown in true geography ;
^pollottta, between Thessalonica and Amphipohs, men-
tioned in the Acts, xvii. 1, and the Itineraries ; ^mfipoUS,
Amphipolis ; and ^fjilippt*

Northward of Macedonia we find the provinces of
JlUrtCUS and ISarljania, the former transposed from the
coast of the Adriatic to the interior,_the latter a portion of
Moesia, answering to the southern part of Servia, which
was constituted a province under the prefecture of lUyricum
in Constantine's division.

The name SDtUCta, placed near Cardia, is no doubt Thracia.
intended for Thkacia, which survived as the designation of
this region down to the period of the map, as may be seen
by a reference to Higden's Polychronicon, i. 23. The most
conspicuous object in the outline of this country is the large
heart-shaped peninsula on which Cardia stands, and which

136 EUEOPE.

rhraeia. is so drawn in accordance with the fanciful derivation of
the name Cardia from the Greek xagbla, " heart/' as given by
SoHnus, 10, § 20. A river is represented as flowing into
the sea somewhere between PhUippi and the Thracian Cher-
sonese ; it is formed of two branches, one of which is named
(Sits and the other (apparently) Stt, iimnediately after
which comes a red-letter name which reads like tualU;
the river is in the position of the Strymon, rather than of
any other stream. Of the towns we may give precedence
to (CottStatXtitXOpoltS, placed on a projecting point of land,
with the following legend: — eTonStantmopoItS ClbttaS

atiflusto unUique mart nisi ab una parte untca m

paSSUUm CtrCUmpICCtttur. in the introductory chapter,
page 9, we referred this statement to the Gesta Begum of
William of Malmesbury (iv. § 353), whom Higden quotes
(Polychron. i. 23) ; but we find a prior statement in Arculf's
Travels (circ. A.D. 700), which appears to be the original
whence Malmesbury borrowed, to the effect that Constan-
tinople is " bounded on all sides, except the north, by the
sea ; the circuit of the walls, which are angular, according to
the line of the sea, is about twelve miles." (Bohn's Early
Travels, p. 11.) The other towns noticed are SestOS ; CCalli=
poliS ; Carita ; I^CracIea (the Perinthus of the classical
period, but named Heraclea in Antonine's J^merar^/, 323);
and EraCtanopoliS, Teajabopolis, which is transported
from the seaside to the interior. The above names need no
comment ; the remaining name, SertOS, is unknown to us.
Mcesia. ilHeSSia/'" or, as it should be spelt, Mcesia, was a Eoman

province in the position of modern Bulgaria, extending along
the right bank of the lower Danube to the Black Sea. It
is not clear what extent our cartographer intended to assign

* The form of the name Messia originated in the fanciful derivation "
messium proventu." — (Imago Mundi, i. 18.)

EUEOPE. 137

to it, for he has apparently carried Thrace up to the Danube. Moesia.
Few objects present themselves to our notice. A mountain,
^attgetlS, and a river, the ilKcStCt, circling round it and
flowing to the Danube, are transposed to this quarter from
the shores of the ^gsean, the cartographer evidently having
in his eye the words of Pliny, iv. 40 "Mestum amnem ima
Pangsei mentis ambientem." Two towns lie near the lower
Danube, viz. — PatliSUS, and HampoliS (? a shortened form
of Hadrianopolis) ; there was an unimportant town of the
former name, but it is not noticed by the authorities whence
our cartographer chiefly drew his materials.

Northward of Mcesia and of the Danube lies JBaCia, Dacia.
which in ancient geography extended from the Thiess to the
Pruth, thus including WallacMa, the greater part of Moldavia,
and part of Hungary. To the title " Dacia " there are added
in the map the words " |^CC 0t 3^USia/* It is difficult to
account for this entry ; we rather surmise that it was added
for the purpose of avoiding the confusion that prevailed in
mediseval geography between Dacia proper, and Dacia as the
name of Denmark. In the Anglo-Saxon map for instance,
we meet with "Dacia ubi et Gothia" for Denmark, and
exactly the same in Marino Sanuto Gesta Dei, p. 286. These
entries appear to be made in accordance with the statement
of Orosius, who, in describing the boundaries of Europe,
mentions " Dacia ubi est Gothia," as being between Alania
and Germany (i. 2) ; and so again Isidore (xiv. 4, § 3). On
the other hand, in the " Imago Mundi " map, we have the
entry "Dacia et Eussia," which nearly accords with the
entry in our map, the intent being to specify the southern
or proper Dacia. We do not indeed understand that Eussia
in the 13th century corresponded in any degree with ancient
Dacia ; but Eoger Bacon appears to have thought so, for he
describes a portion of Eussia as lying W. of Albania in a
Line with Hungary and Poland {Op. Maj. p. 169).

138 ' EUEOPE.

Eastward of Dacia come the BulsatU, between the
rivers ^lattUS and MWHU^ZX, The former of these rivers
is introduced in accordance with the mistaken statement
of Isidore, ix. 2, § 94 ; the latter is the Dniepr, the classical
BoEYSTHENES, which name was superseded by that of Dana-
PKis, about the ^th century after Christ. The Bulgarians are
thus represented as occupying that part of Russia which lies
W. of the Dniepr. The entry of their name is noticeable as
one that belongs to mediaeval geography proper, the Bul-
garians having first come into notice in the 5 th century of
the Christian era. Their earliest seat was on the course of
the Volga, whence they made violent inroads upon the
Eoman provinces, and at length settled on the plaias
between the Carpathians and the Balkan, and finally (about
the middle of the 1 th century) were confined to the country
now named Bulgaria, to the S. of the Danube. The position
assigned to them on the map is therefore an anachronism.
The geographical statements as to their position are very
vague and conflicting. King Alfred, in his Orosius, places
them between Carinthia and Greece, a wilderness intervening
between them and the first named country (Bohn's ed., p.
247). In the Anglo-Saxon map they appear between the
Danube and the Northern Ocean, which would be partly
correct at that period. Higden (i. 22) places them S. of
the Danube, but at the same time makes Bulgaria a part of
Hungary, and carries it westward to Gallia Belgica. Eoger
Bacon places them S. of the Danube {Op. Maj. p. 169).
Alani. Eastward of the Bulgarii come the '^\mx SitfjK [Scythe],
between the Danaper and a river named (CiJtUtlS, We have
been unable to discover the authority for this latter najne,
as no river of such dimensions exists between the Dniepr
and the Bon, and the only names that we know in this
quarter bearing the slightest resemblance to Coruus are

EUEOPE. 139

Gerrus and Coretus, the former a river of uncertain identiii- Alani.
cation, and the latter a bay of the Palus Mseotis ; but these
are mentioned by Pliny (iv. 85) alone of the authorities
usually consulted by our cartographer. As to the Alani,
they are placed in this position in accordance with the
statements of Isidore (xiv. 4, § 3) and Orosius (i. 2). There
is independent evidence that a branch of the Alani, whom
Eoger Bacon accurately designates the Alani Occidentales
{Ojp. Maj. p. 169), occupied this region in the first four
centuries of the Christian era, and mediaeval writers down
to Higden (Polychron. i. 22) retained them in that position.
The other branch, or Eastern Alani, lived in the eastern
Caucasus, and are probably represented there at the present
day (Smith, Diet, of Ancient Geog., s. v. Alani).

Next to the Coruus comes the river ^tfaxat, which we
are again unable to identify. No tribe is placed between
these two rivers in southern Europe, but the vacant space
is filled with the figure of an ostrich and an inscription
which describes it as having the head of a goose, the body
of a crane, and the feet of a calf, and as being in the habit

of eating iron : — " ©gtricius, cajjulj aitscrts, corjjus flruts,

petES bituli, ferrum COmetlit/' The form of the name
"ostricius" is observable, inasmuch as it furnishes an indica--
tion that our cartographer did not depend upon classical
authorities for his natural history, otherwise he would have
used the word " struthio " or " struthio-camelus ; " it is
needless to add that the ostrich is imknown in the region
to which it is assigned. We may compare with this the
statement in ^thicus, that the ostrich was to be found on
the mountains of Armenia (cap. 105).

CHAPTEE Vm.

EVROVE^-Continued.

Gallia — Germania — Rsetia — Noricum — Pannonia — Hungari — Sarmatje — Sclavi
— Dani— Noreya— CsTiocephales— Gryphse — The Seven Sleepers — Islands
of the Northern Ocean.

!fortliern In our examination of Southern Europe as depicted on the
Europe. Hereford map, we have met with but few indications of con-
temporaneous geography. Turning northwards, such indi-
cations increase in number and interest, particularly in
connection with Southern France, Northern Germany, and
Great Britain. But even in those countries with which our
cartographer had good opportunities of making himself
acquainted, it is surprising how defective was his knowledge,
and how grossly erroneous many of his statements. Occa-
sionally indeed the names introduced are wholly beyond
identification, and in many other instances the commentator
has to draw largely on the forbearance of his readers in
respect to the explanations offered.
Gallia. We commence with the Gallic region, including under
that title all that lay between the Ehine and the Pyrenees.
The cartographer does not indeed introduce Gallia as a
general title for this region, but he gives the various sub-
divisions of ancient Gaul, and we are therefore justified in
assuming that he followed the precedent of ancient geo-
graphy in this matter, just as Higden has done in his
Polychronicon, i. 25. The only statement referring to Gaul
in its entirety is one describing its dimensions, borrowed,
with sundry blunders, from Pliny, iv. 105: — ^ 3^£TtO

EUEOPE. 141

fluJjio usque ab J^trmrum et ab ocuno usque au monies Gaiua.
Cefientiam et juga [Jura] qui bernar&onensem [qmbua

JSTarbonensem] ©alUattl eXClutlit lottSttUlrme TOIiIS

(cccxx.) passuum, latttubine EmWrni secunltum

^Srippant regent. The addition of the word regem can
only be explained by the assumption that our cartographer
identified Vipsanius Agrippa with the King Agrippa of the
New Testament. "We need hardly say that these concluding
words form no part of Phny's text: to make the sentence
intelligible^ the reader must assume that Agrippa is the
subject of the verb excludit, the meaning being that Agrippa
had excluded Gallia Narbonensis from his estimate.

Of the mountain chains which belong wholly or in part
to France, the Alps are elaborately debneated on the side of
Italy, and the Pyrenees on the side of Spain. Neither of
these names appears on the map, if we except the notice of
the latter in the passage just quoted from Pliny ; but the
strange name JEteCOrftanorUUt is assigned to a special height
of the Pyrenees, near the source of the Garonne. The
Cevennes and Jura are noticed in the inscription from Pliny,
but are not depicted on the map. The Cote d'Or may possibly
be indicated by the mountain on the left bank of the Saone,
in connection with the boundary between France and Bm--
gundy (see page 7). Two other special heights are entered,
ClarUS JlonS and JKonS JHtcJjael, but these belong to
the topography, rather than to the physical geography of the
country.

The rivers are described with tolerable accuracy, but
several of the names are peculiar. Commencing at the K
we have the Ehine (not named) with its chief tributaries
the JHoSella and JloSe, Meuse, on its left bank, together with
three other names which we cannot altogether account for,
namely, the lira, the III, on which Strasburg stands, the

142 EUEOPE.

Gallia, mediaeval form of wMch appears to have been "Ellus''
(Graesse Orhis latinus, p. 82), or, according to Manage
{Bid. Etym. i. 45) "Alsa;" the ^rat, properly the name
of the Sa6ne, but here evidently intended for the . Aar, the
"Arola" or "Arula" of mediaeval writers (Graesse, p. 19),
though "Arar" is after all the more exact equivalent in
point of sound ; and the ©u, which is apparently intended
for the upper Ehine, but why so named we cannot divine.
The Delta of the Ehine is marked by three diverging arms.
Proceeding westward, we encounter the river ^UXOtttS, in
the district of Flanders; the name resembles Axona, the
ancient name for the Aisne, but it is difficult to account for
the transference of that river to a locality where we should
expect to meet with the Somme (the ancient Samara, as might

y be inferred from the name Samarobriva for Amiens, thoiigh

the Eavenua geographer (iv. 26) gives it as Syemena) ; our
cartographer appears in this matter to have followed
the "Imago Mundi" map, which inserts here the name
Oxona. The SjCUatta, Seine, is depicted with too long a
course, reaching nearly to Lyons ; its affluents are the (iCutta,
which we take to be the Icauna or Tonne ; the JlCatlta or
Marne, which thus appears under its modem rather than its
ancient name Mateona ; and the ^gga, Oise, the mediaeval
EsiA or CEsiA (Graesse, page 85). The Htgn^iS, Ioire,_
comes next, with its tributary the JHcljattta, correctly
Meduana, Mayenne, with the Satta, Sarthe, neither of
which latter names appears in ancient geography ; the pas-
sage in which the name Meduana occurs (Lucan, i. 438)
being held to be spurious. Then comes the ^crutllja,
Garonne, the classical Garumna, but the form " Garunda "
appears as early as the close of the 4th century (Symmach.
ad Auson. 9, page 8 5), and is still, with a slight modification
— Gironde, applied to the estuary of the Garonne; its

EUEOPE. 143

affluent, the Dordogne, is noticed in the map under an Gallia.
abbreviated form, which we read as IBurttattta, closely
resembling the mediaeval "Dordonia" (Graesse, p. 76); it
will be observed that the Dordogne is transferred from the IST.
to the S. bank of the Garonne. The Adour, on which stands
Bayonne, is entered on the map, but not named. On the
Mediterranean coast we meet with the ^trax, the Atax or
Aude; and the EoljattUS, Bhone, with its tributaries the
Sadne (not named), and the WiSWCU, probably intended
for ISAEA, Isdre, but placed in the position of the Durance,
inasmuch as Embricn is marked on its course. An expansion
on the course of the Ehone, above Lausavme, doubtless repre-
sents the Lake of Geneva.

The political divisions of the Gallic region are given
with tolerable fulness. Taking them in their historical order
we have firstly Ceesar's three divisions : — ^quitaitta, Pallia
ffl^clttca, and Pallia Belgica, the two former being trans-
posed in position. These divisions applied to Gaul exclusive
of the original ^tO&iTlCia {Provence) of the Eomans, which
was afterwards constituted Gallia ISTarbonensis, and which
is indicated in the map by the territorial title ^atiOTta, as
in the earlier map of Guidonis, circ. 1200 (Santarem, ii. 216).
We may next notice a title, which is not easily explained,
viz. — ®allta "SM. populorum, between the lower Garonne
and the Pyrenees : it seems to be intended either for Gallia
NovEMPOPULANA, one of the sub-divisions of Aquitania, intro-
duced in the 4th century after Christ, or for Septimania, a
division in the same part of Gaul in the 6th and 7th centuries,
consisting of the seven dioceses included under the Metro-
politan jurisdiction of Narbonne, which were held by the
Visigoths from 418 to 759. The remaining divisions belong
to contemporaneous geography ; the most observable of the
entries is that which notices the boundary between France

144 EUEOPE.

Gallia, and Burgundy, EermiltUiS jfXdmdZ tt ButQUUtlie, on which
M. D'Avezac lays so much stress as tending to fix the date
of the map (see chap. I. pp. 6, 7). We have already pointed
out the difficulty of defining the precise position of the
boundary, and have suggested that it was intended to apply
to the G6te d'Or, which is transferred in the map from the
right to the left bank of the Sa6ne ; even thus the statement
would be incorrect, as Burgundy extended westward across
the CSte d'Or to the right bank of the Loire ; in short, the
indication seems to be so vague that we derive little infor-
mation from it beyond the fact of the rivalry which existed
between these two important States at the period of the map.
The other political divisions from N. to S. are as follows : —
l^olatttlia, Holland, at this period under its own Counts,
erroneously placed in the angle between the most westerly
arm of the Ehine and the North Sea; JSrahStltia, Brabant;
Campania, Champagne; Jlatttiria, Flanders; §,OXmmmvSi,
Normandy, correctly represented as lying on both sides of
the Seine ; ©aSCOttia, Gascony ; ^quttattia, already noticed
as an ancient designation, but also a term of contemporaneous
geography, Aquitaine being constantly employed at this
period in lieu of the more modern Ckoienne ; ^iHErttia,
Auvergne ; and ^tO&tttCta, Provence. Comparing this list
with that of Higden, we note the absence of Picardia;
Britannia Minor (Brittany), the more remarkable, inasmuch
as this was one of the great fiefs of the French crown;
Pictavia {Poitou) ; and Andegavia {Anjou).

The towns themselves do not for the most part call for
special notice, but we may point to an interesting group in
Gascony, which is evidently introduced with a view to con-
temporaneous history, viz. — Fronsac, Lihourne, and Bourg,
places which figure in the history of the Edwardian wars. We
may also remark on the numerous names of dubious import.

EUEOPE. 145

some of which we are wholly unable to identify. Paris, Gallia.
^artSiUS Ci&ttaS, occupies a very conspicuous place on the
map, proportioned to its poKtical importance as the capital of
France. Above Paris, on the Marne, we notice ^uttStO=
Uorum, Auxerre, and iLatttiatUS, in the position of Meaux,
the Latin name of which, however, was latinum ; and near
the upper Seine ^UgUStUllUnum, Autun. Below Paris,
on the Seine, i^OtomagUm, Bouen, the "metropolis" of
Normandy, as Higden styles it. Between the Seine and
the upper Meuse, WiZXIXiS, Hheims, the ancient Eemi or
DuEOCOETOEUM,* an archiepiscopal see ; SuCSta, Soissons, the
Augusta Suessonum, or simply Suesson^, of Anton. Itin.
362, 379 ; JKOUS HatHrUtli, J^aon, correctly depicted as on
an isolated hill, which is crowned with a noble cathedral ;
®0SOrtia, near the head of the Meuse, probably intended
for Cfisors, the mediaeval Gisortium (Graesse, Or. Lat. p. 1 0),
a place of great military importance so long as Normandy was
held by the English, with a strong fortress partly bmlt by
our Henry II. ; and ^OUttUttt or ^obltum, a corrupt read-
ing of NoviONUM, the mediaeval name for Noyon (Graesse, p.
148). Between the river Seine and the so-called Auxonta,
are two figures of towns, one of which is designated SCttlCS
or ScrcICS ; it stands in the position of Amiens, but we
know of no name at all resembling it. On the sea coast, be-
tween the Auxonta and the Ehine, CitttCracUltt, for Cameea-
CUM, Cambrai; S^orttaCUttt, Tournay ; and 3SotlOma, the
later Latin name for Boulogne (see Amm. MarceU., xx. 9 ;
Zosimus, vi. 2), the earlier Gesoriacum. On the course of

* The presence of double names for the Gallic towns, such as Remi and
Durocortorum, AureUani, and Genabum, etc. etc. , is due to the circumstance
that the towns assumed, subsequently to the 4th century, the names of the
tribes to which they belonged. These tribal names are the prototypes of the
modem names, with a few exceptions, such as Augustodunum, Autun, and
Borbetomagus, Worms.

K

146 EUEOPE.

Gallia, the Meuse, iLtOftiUttt, one of several mediaeval names for
LUge (Graesse, p. 122); ^qutSgranum, Aix-la-Chapelle,
a place not unknown to the Eomans, though the name does
not appear in any Latin writer; with regard to the word
" Granvun," conflicting, and as far as we can judge, unsatis-
factory, explanations are offered (see Daniel, Geographic, iii.
899); the town rose to eminence under Charlemagne; and
UcrOtia, evidently a mistake, but whether intended for
Veromandui, St. Quentin, or for Pekona, Peronne, we cannot
say. On the Ehine, JHetiS, Metz, and ^grtpptna Colotlia,
the full Eoman name for Cologne, from which the name
Agrippina has dropped out. On the Moselle, Cattl(a&, pro-
babably intended for Gandatum, Ghent; SSIormatia, Worms;
JKagOtttia, Maintz ; JIucntta, for CONFLUENTIA (Graesse, p.
63), CoUentz; and FerCiUnUttt, Verdun. On the lira, a
town evidently intended for Strashurg, the mediaeval Steatis-
BUEGUM {Q-eog. Mav. iv. 2 6), but the latter syllable alone can
be read — Buttj, At the junction of the Arar and Ehine,
iSaSCl, with its modern German name, more familiar to us
in its French form Bdsle.

Eetuming to the Seine we notice between it and the Loire,
on the sea coast, JHonS ilHicIjael, Mont St. Michel, the site
of a famous monastery, founded in 709, and much visited by
pilgrims in the Middle Ages, notably by St. Louis in 1254,
and further celebrated for its library; ^^atttettS, properly
NamnetjE or Namnetes, Nantes ; and in the interior, ^ntl0;
gabtS, Angers ; a partly obliterated name, which is evidently
intended for fficnomatli, Le Mans ; and ffiamotum, Cae-
NUTUM, Chartres. On the Loire, ^ttrcltanum, OrUans ;
^eumiS, probably a mistake for KiVEENis, Nevers (see Ant.
Itin. 367, u I); Uctllium, a name which we can hardly
do otherwise than identify with Venddme, the mediaeval
Vendociniim, but Ave know no reason why this place shoiild

ETJEOPE. 147

be noticed ; and on the other bank of the river, SDurOtltS, GaUia.
Tours. Between the Loire and the Garonne, %tX%ixlK,
possibly Quercy, a name frequently mentioned in Froissart's
Chronicles (e.g. cap. 232), but of which the proper Latin
name was " Cadurcinus Pagus ; " SctttUtl^ta, Saintes, though
the name approximates rather to that of the district''" Saintogne,
both names being variations of Santones ; ^icta&tS, Poitiers ;
and ©sea, possibly intended for Auch, the mediaeval name
of which was Ausoi. On the Garonne, fLlWlOgCtta, either
Limoges (the ancient Lemovices), or else Limagne, the title of
the plain of Auvergne, to which it answers sufficiently well
in position but not in form, the Latinised name of Limagne
being " Alimania " (Graesse, p. 9) ; ^ijertttS, probably Cler-
mont, which was known as Aeveena before it assumed its
later title of d^latUS JHotXS, which is assigned in the map
to a hill between the sources of the Garonne and the Loire,
and from which, through the intermediate form Claromontium,
comes the modern Clermmit ; the double entry t which this
identification involves occurs elsewhere in the map ; SDolOSa,
Toulouse; and JSurtlCgala, Bordeaux, which is represented
in a style proportioned to its importance. On the Dordogne,
ILagfiUttia, Lihoume, one of the Bastide towns of Aquitaine,
and in the 13 th and 14th centuries a formidable rival of
Bordeaux ; jFtOttSaC^a, Fronsac, a suburb of Lihoume, on the
opposite side of the Dordogne, possessed in that day of a
castle which Monstrelet pronounces to be " the strongest in
all Guienne, and the key to Guienne and the Bordelois"
{Chron. iii. 37); and 3SurgJ)iware, Bourg, a port at the
junction of the Dordogne and Garonne, which appears

* It will be observed that there is only one pictorial representation for both
Sentungia and Piotavis, probably therefore the former is intended for a district,
though not written in the red ink.

t Compare Remesburgh and Eatispona, pp. 153, 154.

148 EUROPE.

Gallia, to have beeu frequented by the English, if we may judge
from a notice of it by Langtoft : —

" Thei aryved alle o weye at Burgh, sur la Mare."

[Ghron. ii. p. 2 6 2, Hearne's edition). On the Adour, JSagOtta,
Bayonne. On the line of the Pyrenees, '^qutSiS, probably
Bigorre, which in the Not. Oall. is styled Aquensis Vicus,
though its earlier name was Aquse Convenarum; a second name,
^EUtltta, assigned to the same place, possibly represents
Palum (Pau), which has been confused with Palencia in
Spain. On the Atrax or Aude, ^atftotia, Narhonne, the
Naubo Maetius of the classical age. On the coast, between
the Aude and the Ehone, ^rclaS Ct&itaS, Aries, at the period
of the map the capital of a kingdom which was held by the
house of Anjou as a fief of the German Empire.

Eastward of the Ehone, JEaSSiUa, Marseilles. On the
Ehone, jL^OtXa, placed in the position of Avenio, Avignon,
and probably intended for that place, which is not otherwise
named, though we can offer no explanation of the name ;
TSitWi, Vienne ; ®entba ; and iLoSaittta, Lausanne, which
is mentioned in Antonine's Itin. 348, as the station "Lacus
Lausonius.'' On the JDv/rance, CaptlC (with a mark
of abbreviation), probably Cabellio, Cavaillon, entered in
conformity with Antonine's Itin. 343 ; and ^ftrclTttnum,
Embrun, noticed *in Itin. 342. On the Sa6ne, ILUgs
trUTlUttt, Lyons; and Cabtlla for Cabillonum, CMlon-
sur-Sadne. On the line of the Alps, SalobUtUm, Solewre,
probably introduced from Antoniue's Itin. 353.

An island off the coast of France, entitled ©lerittt,
is no doubt OUron, a name associated with a well-known
code of maritime laws in that day (Macpherson, Annals of
Commerce, i. 358). A representation of a bull or buffalo is
introduced in the south of France, with the title BuglOSSa.
It is difficult to explain this, inasmuch as "buglossa" is the

EUROPE. 149

name of a plant, the burrage, so called from its resemblance Gallia.
to an ox's tongue. Does the pictorial representation purpose
to expound the etymology of the word ? or did the carto-
grapher really fancy buglossa to be the name of an animal ?

Crossing the Ehine from GaUia we enter upon a region Germania.
which, as far as its topography is concerned, lies almost
wholly outside the range of classical geography, and for
which our cartographer was obliged to faU back upon con-
temporaneous authorities and his own personal knowledge.
The entries of towns, few as they are, have on this account
considerable interest, but we are stiU perplexed with the
vagueness and inaccuracy which pervade this, no less than
other parts of the map.

It is difficult to define the area which the author of the
map assigned to Germania. While geographers generally,
from the time of Pliny (iv. 81), have regarded the Vistula
as its limit on the side of Eussia, our map extends the
countiy beyond that river to an imaginary range of moun-
tains abutting on the shore of the Baltic. As to its southern
limit, the authority of Isidore (xiv. 4, § 4) is accepted by
Higden (i. 26) in favour of the Danube, though the latter
writer appends a statement to the effect that Germany
extends to the Alps, near the head of the Adriatic. West-
ward, the Ehine formed the recognised boundary, though
Lorraiae is included by Higden among the divisions of
Germany. The twofold division into Upper and Lower
Germany is noticed on the map, but the position of the
upper division is misplaced in deference to the authority of
Isidore (I. c.) who says "Superior juxta septentrionalem
oceanum." Accordingly, on the border of the sea, beyond
the Vistula, we read a dog-latin inscription, which tells us,
with a considerable measure of truth, that Upper Germany
was held by a Slavonian population : — (germania SUpcrior

150 EUEOPE.

Jermania. qui alj illog Scla&Orum gentiittS, The other division
is identified with Saxony, and is placed between the Elbe

and Weser : — ®ermania inferior : ijec tt Saxonia ; and

in this respect our cartographer has deviated from Isidore,
who places Lower Germany about the Ehine. (Compare
Higden, I. c.)

A mountain range, entitled ^SiOXlS SuC&UlS, is repre-
sented as lying between the Baltic and the Carpathians.
The treatise Imago Mundi mentions a mountain of a similar
name, but places it in Suabia. The " Psalter " map places
it in the same position as the Hereford map. Whether the
name, as so placed, contains a reminiscence of the Mare
Suevicum as a title of the Baltic, or of the Mons Sevo of
Pliny, iv. 96, and Solinus, 20, § 1, of which the latter says
"initium Germanise facit," we cannot undertake to say.
Sevo is supposed to refer to Kiolen, in Norway. The Suevus
Mons of mediaeval geography means the Carpathians (Schardii,
Script. Ber. Germ. i. 7, 8).

The chief rivers of Germany are duly entered on the
map, namely, the JMoilt, Main, on the right bank of the
Ehine ; the CEttttSa, Ems, flowing into the North Sea ; and
then, in succession, the TOiSara, Weser ; the ^Hjatta, Elbe ;
the Ci&era, probably intended for the Oder (the medieeval
Vidua, Viadus, or, in Adam of Bremen, Odora), though the
notice of it as the boundary between the Danes and
Saxons would incline us rather to identify it with the Eider
(the mediaeval Egdora or Agidora) ; and the jf istula, Vistula.
Turning to the Danube, we find the sources of that river
correctly placed in reference to the Ehine, with the state-
ment l^tC SUrfltt fonS ©anulitt; whether there is in this
any special reference to the reputed source of the Danube
at Donauschingen, we cannot say. Of the aifluents of the
Danube on its left bank, in Germany, two are entered on the

EUEOPE. 151

map, the 3^em and the TOaUtf), representing in all probability ©ermania.
the Begen and the Waag.

The political divisions of Germany are as follows : —
.SaXOUta, which our cartographer identifies generally with
Lower Germany in the inscription already quoted, and
further defines its eastern or (?) northern limit in the state-
ment that the " Cidera " divides the Saxons from the Danes ;
the jFriSOneS, the Frisii of Tacitus (for the form Frisones
compare Paulus Diaconus, G. L. vi. 37), a people closely
connected with the Saxons in the 4th and 5 th centuries of
our era, and hence regarded as belonging to the same stock,
as implied in the words appended to the name, qui inter
SaxOtieS imputantur; their district adjoined the North
Sea, but in the map they are transported to the interior ;
STuringia, correctly placed eastward of the Weser ; Bohemia,
mentioned in connection with Brogue, 9Sraga WrtrOJIOliS
38O0ntariorunt, and again in another quarter in connection
with the name Sala, ^ala 33oenti0, which is by no means
easy to explain. The river ^aale can hardly be intended,
inasmuch as the name is printed in red letters ; nor can we
state the meaning of the broad red lines disposed in geo-
metrical patterns, which the cartographer has introduced in
close connexion with the Elbe. In addition to the inscrip-
tion above quoted, which applies to the most westerly of
these lines, the word ©ata appears in an upper compart-
ment, and an undecipherable word in the adjacent compart-
ment. Is it possible that our cartographer had heard of the
symmetrical arrangement of the mountain chains surrounding
the Bohemian plateau, and that he has sought to indicate
this in an exaggerated manner ? Even so, the name " Sala "
remains unexplained. Lastly, we have to notice the- Scla&i,
mentioned in connexion with Germania Superior; these, though
placed on the shores of the Baltic, must include the Slavonian

152 EUEOPE.

Irermania. population of Upper Germany properly placed (Bohemia
and Moravia), the "Sclavia Minor" of Higden, i. 22, of
which he says " extenditur a Wandalis et Bohemis usque ad
Saxones." The titles Westphalia and Franconia are omitted,-
while Suavia is assigned as a duplicate name for Prague.

The towns of Northern Germany are, with one exception,
placed on the Weser; we readily identify the following four : —
Btttna, Bremm, at that period the most important ecclesi-
astical city of Northern Germany, having become since 1223
the sole seat of the Archi-episcopate, which it had previously
held alternately with Hamburg, and which, down to the
middle of the 12 th century, had held jurisdiction over
Scandinavia, as weU as over Northern Germany ; Bremen is
described by ^neas Silvius as " vetus metropolis et Danorum
gentis in Christo mater" (Schardii, Eer. Germ. i. 455).
iFarttTt, Verden, the seat of a bishopric, founded in 786
by Charlemagne; ©lt(eXing6urslj, Oldenlmrg, one of the
leading commercial cities of Northern Europe in the 9 th and
10th centuries; and ^IbStalj, Halherstadt, another of the
sees founded by Charleniagne. The name of a fifth town on
the Weser, w'hich reads as CattltUt, is probably intended
for Hamhurg, which, previously to 1223, was on an equal
footing with Bremen in ecclesiastical rank. On the Elbe,
the name JBagatlfS&Utfl occurs, nearly in the position of
Hamburg ; it is doubtless intended for Magdeburg, the seat
of an archbishopric from 967. In central Germany one

town only is noticed, Braga mettopoUs aSocmariorutti,

Prague, one of the chief cities of Europe in the 13th and
14th centuries, "Maxima et pulcherrima urbs nee Hetrusca
Florentia minor nee difformior " (iEneas Silvius, apud Germ,
niustr. i. 455) ; at the date of the map it was the seat of the
most brilliant court in Europe, and is described by Karl IV.
in 1348, as "hortus deliciarum in quo reges deliciantur"

EUEOPE. 153

(Daniel, Geog. iii. 672). A second title, Sua&ta, is given to Germania.
this same town, probably a mistaken reference to the district
name Suabia. The natural history of Germany is strangely
iHiistrated by a figure of a scorpion, ScorptO, introduced
into a vacant space near the Main.

The countries lying S. of the Danube are described Raetia,
according to their ancient divisions. The Eoman province
of E^TIA occupied the region between the Danube and the
Alps, from the source of that river to the confluence of the
Inn. About the time of Constantine it was divided into
two portions. Prima and Secunda, the latter being the most
northerly of the two. In the map we find the two divi-
sions entitled Wi,ttXa. JHittOr and JSecta JHajor, lying re-
spectively W. and E. of the river iLccfj* The designation
of the latter river by its modern title, instead of the ancient
licus, is observable. The terms Major and Minor again
appear in the " Imago Mundi " map, but we are not aware
that there is any authority for their use. The towns
entered in this district are ^UgUSta, AugsTmrgh, rightly
placed on the Lech, the seat of a bishopric founded as far
back as 590; and l^atispotta, Eatisbon, the ancient Eegi-
num, which should have been placed on the Danube. The
form " Eatispona" occurs in the treatise Imago Mundi, i. 18.

E'OKICUM adjoined Esetia, lower down the course of the Iforieiun.
Danube. It is so placed on the map ; but instead of being
carried E. of the Inn, the. title §i,OXitVLS itl qUO iSaioarti
appears W. of that river, and the boundary between it and
Etetia is placed at a river in the position of the Isar, but
called Catlta, a name for which we can in no way account.
The Inn, and its tributary the Salza, are described as the
WftlE and the Salj0, which closely approximate to their
modem designations ; and the position of the Salza is cor-
rectly given. The ^ueSO, Enns, also belonged to this pro-

154 EUEOPE.

Norieum. vince. The statement that Noricum was occupied hy the
Baiorii or Bavarians is probably borrowed from the Imago
Mundi, where we read, "Noricus quae et Bavaria, in qua
est civitas Eatispona" (i. 18). This would not be true if
Noricum had been properly placed, for the Bavarians have
always had their chief settlements W. of the Inn, whereas
Noricum (as already stated) lay E. of that river, and rather
answers to portions of Austria. It was only about the time
of Charlemagne that Bavaria lay as much E. as W. of the
Inn (Spruner's Hand Atlas, No. 17). The error is to a cer-
tain extent rectified in the map by the removal of Noriciun
to the W. of the Inn. The only towns assigned to this
region are J^fTUESiurgf), which we take to be a duplicate
entry of Batisbon, under its German designation Begerisburg
(compare the river name 3£lctn, for Begen) ; and SaljCftUtg!),
an archi-episcopal see from the time of Charlemagne, and
hence better known by its German name than as the Latta
Juvavia.

Pannonia. Eastward of the Aneso we meet with the entry ^attc
UOtlta InfftiOt, for the district thence to the river Save.
P. Superior is not noticed at all. The Eoman province of
Pannonia occupied the space enclosed N. and E. by the
Danube where it makes its great southerly bend, and S. by
the Save. The lower division, P. Inferior, lay in the angle,
and along the southerly reach of the Danube ; the upper
division was W. of this, higher up the course of the river.
Both belonged to the kingdom of Hungary, the biilk of
which was situated on the other side of the Danube. The
rivers SaJjUS, Save, and ©ra&US, Brave, belong mainly to
this region ; in the map the Drave is erroneously described
as an affluent of the Save.

The towns are as follows : — Safiaria Saixtti Jlartttii,

which was situated at the foot of the Martinsberg (the

EUKOPE. 155

Sacer Mons Pannonice), the birthplace of St. Martin. It Pannonia.
was destroyed by the Mongols in 1242. On the summit of
the hill is the most famous monastery of Hungary, founded
in 996, and finally rebuilt in 1225 (Patterson's Magyars, i.
225). The same entry occurs in the "Imago Mundi" map.
Jatna, on the Danube, probably intended for Vienna, the
ancient Vindobona, and Faviana. PajSCt, probably Pesth, a
town founded by G-ermans, and described as being in the
early part of the 1 3th century, " Magna et ditissima Teu-
tonica villa" (Patterson's Magyars,!. 39). (BXKXiK, Gran,
the chief ecclesiastical city of Hungary from the 12 th cen-
tury to the present day. The use of the modern instead of
the ancient name, Strigonium, is observable. The town is
transferred in the map from the south to the north bank of
the Danube. On the Drave, ^EtabtUW, Petta%, a Eoman
station of importance ; ^xafiOUa, probably intended for
Arrabona, near Badb, on the Danube, mentioned in Anto-
nine's Itin. 246 ; .StttttUttI, probably Sirmium, which stood
on the Save, the chief city of Pannonia under the later
Eoman empire ; and a fourth town, with an undecipherable
name, commencing with Cam, in the angle between the
Save and Drave. On the Save, Scicia, Sissek, a Eoman
station of importance.

Eastward of Germany the position of Hungary can be Hungari.
identified by the river Eije, Theiss, and the 3£lupe0 Sat;
ntatJjarUtlt, the Carpathians, though the name "Sarmatici
Montes," as used by Ptolemy (ii. 11, § 6), applies more par-
ticularly to the western members of the Carpathian system.
The title "Eupes Sarmatarum" is borrowed from Solinus, 20,
S 2. The name Hungaria is not appUed to this region in
the map, and the fJ^Uttflart are relegated to a position in
K E. Eussia. Probably our cartographer agreed with Hig-
den in treating Pannonia as the equivalent for Hungary,

156 EUROPE.

Hungari. and also in regarding the original seat of the Hungarians
as having been "in farther Scythia, beyond the Maeotic
marshes" {Polychron. i. 22), the Hungari being identified by
Higden with the Huns on etymological grounds. We need
hardly say that there is no foundation whatever for this identi-
fication : the name " Ungarn " is supposed to be a German
equivalent for "Magyar" (Patterson's Magyars, i. 11). The
northerly position assigned to the Hungarians on the map
is not without a measure of truth, as their original quarters
in Europe appear to have been near the Ural mountains
(Brace's Ethnology, p. 87); but we suspect that our carto-
grapher had no further object than to express the view cur-
rent in the Middle Ages, that the Magyars were closely akin
to the accursed race of Gog and Magog, whont Alexander
the Great had shut up near the Northern Ocean. The
dread with which the eruption of the incarcerated tribes
was anticipated in the Middle Ages was no doubt very much
quickened by the entrance of the Magyars into Europe ia
the 9 th century {Introduction, xxiii.).

Sarmatse. To the K E. of the Eupes Sarmatharum we find the
.SartttatC, placed here ta accordance with ancient geo-
graphy, which gave the title of Sarmatia to all that lay
eastward of the Vistula and the Carpathians. A figure of
a bear, SEtSUS, is appropriately introduced into this region.

Sclavi. The Scla&t are placed eastwards of the Sarmatse. We

have already had mention of the Slavonian population iu
the " Germania Superior " of the map, which is placed E. of
the Vistula. The more easterly Sclavi must, refer to the
Slavonian element in Eussia. Higden distinguishes ia a
confused kind of way between two Sclavias, the greater one of
which included the Sarmatse, part of Dalmatia, and part of
Mcesia ; while the lesser division was in Upper Germany
{Polychron. i. 22). There is a substratum of truth in this

EUEOPE. 157

statement, inasmuch as modern ethnologists recognise a two- Sclavi.
fold division of the Slavonian family, — the Eastern, com-
prising the Eussian, Bulgarian, and lUyrian branches ; and
the Western, comprising the Polish, Bohemian, and Wendian
branches (Brace's Ethnology, p. 81). The Slaves are im-
known in ancient geography, their first appearance in his-
tory being in the 6th century of our era.

The extreme north of Europe is very imperfectly repre- Dani.
sented on the map. There is nothing to indicate the Jutish
peninsula, and the cluster of islands which formed in that
day, as in this, the home of the Danes. The people are
mentioned in the inscription relating to the river Cidera,
EcrmmUS ©anorum tt SaXOnum, and if that river is
intended to serve for the Eider as well as for the Oder, the
boundary would accord with that assigned to the Danes by
Adam of Bremen {Be Situ Danice, cap. 208). The most
observable point in connection with this notice is, that our
cartographer calls the Danes by their proper name, whereas
mediaeval writers generally called them Daoi : so, for in-
stance, Higden, who endeavours to account for the name in
that form "Daci quasi Dagi, quia de Gothorum genere pro-
creati" (Polychron. i. 31).

The Baltic Sea is associated with the legend of the Seven Sinus Ger-
Sleepers, in accordance with the version given by Paulus iiiamcus.
Diaconus * {Be Gest. Lang. i. 4) : — SitlUS ©ErmattiCUS in

qua scptem birt jaccre feruntur ; inccrtum esse quanto
tempore, seti quantum ex taftttu cognoscttur l^omant

fuiSSe CreiUntUr^ Higden (i. 24) records the tale, at
somewhat greater length, from the same authority, as fol-
lows: "On the very shore of the ocean a cave is seen

under a lofty rock, where seven men have long rested in

* " Septem viri (mcertum ex quo tempore) longo sopiti sopore cpiiesount.
Hie denique q^uantum ad habitum spectat Roinani esse cernuutur. "

158 EUEOPE.

Sinus Ger- sleep, with their bodies and dress so unchanged that they
manicus. ^j-g ]^Qig^ ^^ great veneration even by ignorant barbarians.
From their dress they are supposed to be Eomans, and
when a man attempted, in a spirit of avarice, to strip one
of them of his clothes, his arms immediately withered. Per-
chance God preserves them uninjured with this intent that
barbarous nations may be at some time converted through
their means." We cite Higden at length ia order to show
the serious light in which the tale was accepted in the
Middle Ages, namely, as a standing miracle for the conver-
sion of unbelievers ; and in this view it is not a matter of
surprise that the scene should be changed as circumstances
required, or rather perhaps that the miracle of Ephesus
should repeat itself ia various parts of the world. The
legend forms one of the series of Curious Myths of the
Middle Ages, discussed by Mr. Baring-Gould (pp. 93-112).
Norway. The Scandinavian peninsula is duly depicted as a penin-

sula, but at a considerable distance eastward of the Baltic.
It is divided into two compartments by a projecting arm of
the sea, perhaps with the idea of distinguishing between Nor-
way and Sweden. Norway alone is named, under the form
^Or^ga, which again occurs in the " Imago Mundi " map,
and which accords closely with the indigenous name Norrige.
A second red-letter name is entered, which also occurs in
the " Imago Mundi " map, ©anjttttr : its meaning we cannot
divine. The figure of a hermit with his staff occupies the
more northerly of the two compartments ; the inscription
Super egeaS CUrrit, which we venture to translate "He
runs over the archipelagoes," may refer to the advance of
Christianity throughout the Scandinavian region, on which
subject Adam of Bremen gives numerous particulars ; the
term "archipelago" is commonly supposed to be derived
from " iEgeum pelagos," but we confess that we are not

EUEOPE. 159

aware of any authority for the word " egea " in this sense. Norway.

In the other compartment is a figure of an ape squatting,

with the title Simta. The only explanation we can offer

for so strange a mistake as to the habitat of the monkey

tribe is, that ^thicus represents the Turchi, who are located

in a neighbouring part of the map, as living on the flesh of

apes and other foul animals (cap. 32). Perhaps, however,

there may be a further reference to the Pigmies, who were

supposed to tenant the extreme north, and whom Paulus

Jovius describes in his letter to Clement VII. as resembling

apes (Notes on Russia, ii. 239).

In a second peninsula eastward of Noreya, shut off from Cynoee-
the mainland by a chain of mountains, there appear two plialss.
squatting figures, with the inscription Jtt ijOC ttECtU SUTlt
CtTtOC0pfj^l0S. The belief in the existence of a dog-headed
race of men was widely current in the Middle Ages ; it may
have been originally founded on the statements of Ctesias
and Megasthenes, as handed down by PHny, vii. 23, and
Sohnus, 52, § 27. The locaUty, however, which these
writers assign as the abode of the Cynocephales was the
mountainous regions of India, and there is little reason to
doubt that the creatures described by them were a species
of ape; St. Augustine discusses the question whether the
Cynocephales belonged to the human race or not {De Civ.
Dei, xvi. 8), giving his opinion in favour of the negative.
The question mooted by St. Augustine was revived albout the
middle of the 9 th century in reference to another race of
Cynocephales living in Northern Europe ; and there still
exist fragments of a correspondence on this point between
Eimbert, the successor of Anskar in the see of Bremen, and
Eatramm, a monk of Corbey. We first hear of the northern
Cynocephales, or Canansei, as they were otherwise called, in
the 8 th century, Paulus Diaconus mentioning them as in

160 EUEOPE.

Cynoce- that quarter (Z>e Gest. Long. i. 11), and again ^thicus, who
phales. specifies the isle Munitia as their abode (cap. 28). Adam
of Bremen (cap. 228) says that they lived about the shores
of the Baltic, that they were the male offspring of the
Amazons, and had their heads between their shoulders.*
The '' Imago Miindi " map places them in the same quarter
as the Hereford map. Eeferring to these people, Eimbert
maintained that they belonged to the human race, and cited
in support of his view the fact that on the roU of martjo^s
stood the name of Christoforus, a Cynocephalite, who died in
284 {Acta Sanctorum, 25 Julii). Wuttke suggests that the
notion originated in the use of hoods made out of the skins
of animals, such as are worn by the Lapps and Finns
(AitMJcos. Pref , p. 1 9) ; Santarem, that it refers to the
custom of driving dogs (iii. Pref., p. 22); but we think it
more probable that the idea is due to some peculiarity of
language, which might be likened to the barking of dogs
(" cum verbis latrant in voce," Adam of Bremen). However
this may have been, there can be no doubt that mediaeval

* The popular view as to these hybrid creatures is conveyed in the follow-
ing passage from the " Eomaunce of Kyng Alisauuder " : —
" Another folk there is biside

Houndynges men clepeth them wide.

From the brest to the grouude

Men hy ben, abouen houudes

Berking of houndes hy habbe.

Her honden withouten gabbe

Ben y-shuldred as an fysshe

And clawed after hound, i-wisse."
" Another folk is bysyde this

That beon y-cleped cenophalis.

Non of heom never swynkith

As eche of other mylk drynkith.

No schule they ete elles, y avowe

So longe so they libbe mowe."

(11. 4962-9, 61318-23.)

EUEOPE. 161

writers seriously believed in the existence of the Cynoce- Cynoce-
phales ia the neighbourhood of the Baltic, probably iu Pliales.
Finland. Katramm's letter, which refers to the statements
of Eimbert, is priated in Dumont's Histoire Critique, vi. 188.
(Wuttke, Pref. p. 21 ; Lelewel, iv. 11, wofe.)

Adjacent to the Cynocephales we observe a man leading Gryphse.
a horse, over the back of which is thrown the skin of a man
to serve as a saddle. The custom thus illustrated of con-
verting the sMns of slaughtered enemies into trappings for
horses, was attributed by Solinus, 15, § 3, to the Geloni;
but by an oversight, which we cannot account for, our
cartographer has transferred the credit of this barbarous
custom to the Gryphee or Grifones : — |§tC i)a6itant ®rtSte

[Griffe] ijomitics Ttequisstmi : nam inter cetera facmora
ettam ijc cuttijus ijostium suorum tegummta sibi et

equiS SUiS faCtUttt. The first clause of this legend accords
with the one in the " Imago Mundi " map — " Hie habitant
Griffe homines nequam." The Anglo-Saxon map places the
" Gryphorum gens '' ia the same locality. The belief in the
existence of these human Gryphse is founded on the authority
of uEthicus (cap. 31), who places them in the extreme north,
in the position of the Ural Mountains. Their country is
described as aboundiug ru wild animals and miaerals but
deficient in agricultural products, and the people as skilled
in the working of metals. These statements serve to con-
nect the mediaeval Gryphse with the myth of the gold-guarding
griffins of Herodotus (iii. Ill, iv. 27).

In the l^orthern Ocean, adjacent to Scandinavia, a group Orcades
of islands is introduced, consisting of — (1.) The Orkneys, Insulee.
©rcaUeS insulee IIHEIEE ; the number thirty-four beiug in
accordance with Orosius, i. 2, who says that only fourteen of
them were inhabited; the real number being fifty-six, of which
about half are now inhabited. The Orkneys were subject to

L

162 EUEOPE.

Orcades Norway down to 1468. (2.) The Faroes, $dXtiZ, wMcli were
InsTilee. discovered by the Normans in 861, and were constituted a
diocese in the province of Bremen, (3.) Iceland, ^Slatll),
colonised by the Norwegians in the latter part of the 9th cen-
tury, and down to 1264 the seat of an independent State,
with a literature of its own, the fame of which had spread to
the universities of western Europe. It was connected eccle-
siastically with the province of Bremen until 1151, when it
was transferred to that of Drontheim. (4.) Thule, SEltttlta
SDtIf, as in Solinus, 22, § 9. Whether our cartographer
attached any definite idea to the title we cannot say; if
he did, it could hardly refer to any other group than the
Slietlands. Dicuil records the visit of some ecclesiastics to
Thule, in terms which are more applicable to Iceland than
to any other place {De Mens. Orb. 7, § 2).

///

CHAPTEE IX.
THE BEITISH ISLES.

Britannia^-Anglia — Wallia— Scotia— Hibemia— Man— Insula A.vium— Insula
Arietum — SvlUse.

OuE concluding Chapter wiU be devoted to that portion of Britan-
the map which excites the keenest interest in the majority niese In-
of our readers — the British Isles. If justification were ®^^"
needed for the order we have followed, we might cite the
authority of old Higden, who, in his geographical descrip-
tion, reserves Britain for the last, coming to it "tanquam
ad speciem specialissimam " " as un to a specialite most
speciaUe " {Polychron. i. 3). It might fairly be anticipated
that in this part of the map we should at length be rid of
all antiquated authorities, and meet with a sound piece of
contemporaneous geography, free of aU mistakes and imper-
fections. The sequel will prove that even here our carto-
grapher does not wholly shake off his allegiance to Orosius,
as witness his notice of the Velabri and Luceni in Ireland —
that he does not steer clear of gross mistakes, as witness in
particular his transfer of Caen (Cadan) to Devonshire — and
that the geographical details are faulty to a remarkable
degree. In one respect we must in charity suppose that his
mode of expression was not intended to be literally accepted.
He could hardly have supposed that the river Tweed ran
from sea to sea, or that there was a channel connecting the
Bristol and English Channels in the neighbourhood of
Glastonbury, or yet that the Severn and Dee had their
sources in Clee Hill. It may have been understood that

164 THE BRITISH ISLES.

Britan- these were conTentional modes of showing the boundaries

niese In- -between the natural divisions of the country. The same

feature may be noticed in the map of the pseudo Eichard

of Cirencester {Be situ Brit), and it has been surmised that

Bertram borrowed the peculiarity from the Hereford map.

The British Isles are drawn on a scale out of all pro-
portion to the other parts of the map, the effect of this being
that the relative positions of places on the opposite sides of
the English Channel and the North Sea are incorrectly given,
and that the seas themselves are much curtailed of their fair
proportions. The southern point of Ireland approximates to
Spain, and in this our cartographer may have designed to
illustrate the views of Phny, iv. 102, and Orosius, i. 2,
though the latter allows a spatiosum intervallum between the
two. The EngUsh Channel and Forth Sea are represented
by a narrow channel of equable breadth; Winchester is
brought opposite to Nantes ; the mouth of the Thames to
that of the Seine ; Lincoln to Cambrai ; and Aberdeen to the
mouth of the Ems. The outhne of England is grievously
marred by the omission of the protrusion S. of the Wash, as
well as by the very slight difference in direction between
the eastern and the southern coasts. The shape of Wales is
rouglily delineated, but the fact that Conway and St. Davids
are brought close together detracts from our estimate of this
quarter of the map. The general form assigned to Britain
very much accords with the description of Giraldus Cam-
brensis, as quoted by Higden, i. 40 : — " Oblonga est et
amplior in medio quam in extremis."

The islands are distinguished by their ancient names as
Btttannia Insula and f^ttiernta ; and the sub-divisions of
the former as ^tiglta, TOalUa, and ScOtta ; to which we
may perhaps add (on the authority of Gervase of Tilbury,

ot. Imp. ii. 10), Conuit)ta»

THE BRITISH ISLES. 165

Commencing with a review of the physical geography of Anglia.
England, we find that the only hill noticed is the one in
which the Severn and Dee are represented as having their
sources, and which is named lEottS €lm, no doubt in
reference to Clee Hill, which forms a conspicuous object in
the south of Shropshire. We have already (page 6) offered
the only explanation, and that a doubtful one, for the dis-
tinction accorded to this really unimportant hill.* The
rivers are given with tolerable accuracy, but the forms of
the names are in some cases peciiliar. The name Avon, for
instance, is given as ^nC, in respect to the Hampshire and
Northamptonshire rivers, the former rather in the position of
the Itchen, and the latter now known as the Nen, though the
name Avon was applied to it down to the time of Drayton's
Polyolhion. We may compare with this form the names
Aune and Ehen, which are regarded as variations of Avon.
It will be observed that the branches of the Hiunber are
depicted with a degree of accuracy which implies personal
acquaintance with that part of the country. Commencing
from the S. we meet with the S^atttOr, the ^X0, the <Bxit,
Avon, the StUri, Stour of Kent, the fS{,ttiZ, Medway, the
EamiSe, Thames, the Coltxe of Colchester, the (BuZ, Nen,
the SEiU, Witham, „th.e l^umtier (with the STrmtE, the
©Ott, the Wi&t, Ouse, and three other branches not named,
one representing the Derwent, and the two others the Mdd
and the Swale), the ®in, Tyne, and the WlttiZ, Tweed, the
addition of a final vowel appearing in the forms Tuidi and
Thuede (Higden, i. 48). On the W. coast the JBe, I>ee, the
Sabxina, Severn, with the W^iz, Wye, and the ^Jjett, Avon.
The Great Ouse is the most serious omission in the list of

rivers.

* According to Goiigt (British Topog. i. 65) a similar entry occurs in
Matthew of Paris's map in the Library of C. C. C. Cambridge, and here again
no other hill is named.

166 THE BEITISH ISLES.

Anglia. The channel which isolates the Isle of Thanet is clearly

marked, and the island is apparently designated IK'ZXiZtiZB,
A fictitious interest attached to this island from the idea that
the name was derived from the Greek word 6avaros " death,"
and that it was so called because its soil, wherever carried,
proved fatal to serpents. It is first noticed on this account
by Solinus, 22, § 8, but without any reference to the
etymology of the name. Isidore (xiv. 6, § 3), quoting the
words of Solinus, adds " Dicta Thanatos a morte serpentum."
The treatise Imago Mundi gives the name as Athanatis,
evidently from a misreading of SoIlqus, whose words "at
Tanatus," are in some MSS. combined into " attanitis ; " and
it mentions this island apparently as being as noteworthy
as Britannia, Anglia, and Hibernia. Bede, and after him
Higden, i. 44, repeat the tale of Solinus. The island is
noticed in the " Apocalypse " map, under the name' Tantutos.
{Introduction, p. xl.)

Three sub-divisions of Anglia are noticed, viz. : — ^or=
ttUftia, Cornwall, which may, however, as already stated,
have been regarded as distinct from Anglia; ILitttfESKga,
frequently used by the old chroniclers for Lincolnshire {e. g.
Higden, i. 47, Lyndisia), though the title is now restricted
to a portion of that county ; * and ^0t!jUtlt6a, Northumber-
land.

In the selection of towns the cartographer has been
guided by ecclesiastical rather than commercial considera-
tions. N"ot only are most of the episcopal towns noticed, but
even some monasteries, while various important places of
trade, such as Bristol, Yarmouth, Lynn, Grimsby, and Scar-
borough, which were of sufficient importance to send repre-
sentatives to the parliament held at Acton Burnell in

* The same root, "Lind," lies at the hottom of Lincoln = MivM colonia,
and Lindaey = lAnd's eye or island.

THE BEITISH ISLES. 167

1283/'- are omitted from the list. We may also notice the AngUa.
omission of the episcopal cities Chichester, Norwich (then an
important place), and Sarum. The omission of these three
towns is the more noticeable, inasmuch as they are mentioned
m a stanza of Latia verses which appears to have been
much in vogue iu the 12th and 13th centuries, as supplying
a list of the episcopal towns at the former period. They
are quoted by Henry of Huntingdon (circ. 1140), as
follows : —

Testes Londinise ratibus, Wintonia Baccho,

Hereforda grege, Wirecestria fruge redundans,

Batha lacu, Salesbira feris, Cantuaria pisoe,

Eboracum silvis, Excestria clara metallis,

Norvicium Dacis, Hiberuis Cestria, Gallis

Cicestrum, Norwageniis Dunehna propinquans.

Testis Lincolise gens infinita decore,

Testis Ely formosa situ, Eoucestria visu. t

* Oidy twenty towns besides London were invited to send representatives
to Acton Bumell, and these twenty " may consequently be supposed to bave
been at that time the most considerable in England" (Hallam, Middle Ages,
iii. 46, note). Of the episcopal towns the list includes Norwich, but excludes
Chichester, Ely, Bath, Sarum, Durham, and Kochester. Of the non-episcopal
towns on the list, the map mentions Nottingham, Northampton, Colchester,
and Shrewsbury. "We are not aware of any dcuta by which to calculate the
populations of the towns at the date of the map ; but about a century later,
in 1377, a capitation tax was levied on the laity, and from the returns of this
tax it has been ascertained that the towns stood in the following order in point
of population, exclusive of Chester and Durham, which, as being in palatine
counties, are not included : — London, York, Bristol, Plymouth, Coventiy, Nor-
wich, Lincoln, Salisbury, Lynne, Colchester, Beverley, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Canterbury, St. Edmund's Bury, Oxford, Gloucester, Leicester, Shrewsbury,
Yarmouth, Hereford, Ely, Cambridge, Exeter, "Worcester, Kingston-upon-
HuU, Ipswich, Northampton, Nottingham, "Winchester, Stamford, Newark,
"Wells Ludlow, Southampton, Derby, Lichfield, Chichester, Boston, Carlisle,
Eochester Bath, Dartmouth (Macpherson, Annals of Commerce, i. 583).

+ These lines are thus rendered by Robert of Gloucester in his Chronicle
(p. 6 of Hearne's edit. 1724) :—

In ye centre of Canterbury mest plente of fysch ys,
And mest chase a boute Salesburi of wylde bestes y wys.

168 THE BEITISH ISLES.

Anglia. Carlisle is not mentioned in the above list, inasmuch as

the see was not founded until 1133, probably after the lines
were composed. The addition of this completes the seven-
teen sees as enumerated by Eobert of Gloucester. The right
of Chester to a place on the list is very questionable. Peter,
the first Norman Bishop, transferred the see from Lichfield
to Chester in 1075, but his successor re-transferred it to
Coventry about 1090, and from that time Chester ceased to
be an episcopal see, though the Bishops occasionally styled
themselves Bishops of Chester. Wells had lost even the
title of an episcopal town from the time when John de
ViUula (1088-1124) transferred the see to Bath, until the
adoption of the duplicate title "Bath and Wells," about
1140.

Returning to the map we find the following places
noticed : — S^OtllJOTlia, London, which is represented by a
castellated structure of fair proportions. ©XEfOlj, Oxford, in
the 13 th century the seat of a university second in fame only
to that of Paris (HaUam, Middle Ages, iii. 525). (JTolceStria,
Colchester, already noticed as one of 'the towns represented at
Acton Burnell. I^orfjatltott, Northampton, another of the
same class of towns. ©Ig, represented as on an island in
the ISTen, which thus does service (we presume) for the fens
of the eastern counties. ILittCOltt, with its cathedral duly

At London schippes mest, and wyn at Wyncestre.

At Herford sohep and orf, and fruyt at 'Wmoestre.

Metel, as led and tyn, in ye oontre of Excestre.

Euerwik of fairest wode, Lynoolne of fayrest men,

Ely of fairest place, of fairest sigMe Eoucestre.

Euene agein Fraunce stode ye centre of Chiehestre, '

Norwiche agein Denemaic, Chestre ageyn Irlond,

Duram ageyn Nonvei, as icli understoude.

Thre wondres titer beth in Englond, none more y not

That water of Bathe ys that on, that ever ya yliclie hot. Etc.

THE BEITISH ISLES. 169.

depicted on an elevation rising from the left bank of tlie AngUa.
river Witham. .SnOtmflfjam, the original form of Notting-
ham; this form had fallen into disuse by the 13th century,
as far as we have been able to judge, so that its appearance
on the map is peculiar ; the town was one of those repre-
sented at Acton BurneU. (Eftoracum, Ycn^ii. 33eulacum,

BeverUy, famed for the shrine of "St. John of Beverley;"
the peculiar form of the name in the map arises, we suspect,
from the omission of a mark of abbreviation over the third
letter, the insertion of which would convert the name into
Beverlacmn. Ittrcfjam, a priory of no great fame, founded
1121 by Walter L'Espec, situated on the Derwent, six miles
below Malton, in the east Eiding of Yorkshire; we can
suggest no reason why it should have been selected for
notice by our cartographer. CaStO (= CaStcllo) i^O&O,
Newcastle-on-Tyne, a place of military importance in the
wars with Scotland : it is pictorially represented by a castle.
ffl^atlxta, Carlisle ; the form of the name is peculiar ; * the
Eoman name was Luguvallum or Lugubalum, which has
been condensed into the second syllable of the name Carlisle,
the first being the Cymric preiix indicative of a Eoman
station. ©UtEttt, Durham, with its cathedral church appro-
priately placed on a Mil. Cjgttia, Chester, noticed perhaps
on the score of its ecclesiastical associations, referred to above
(page 1 6 8), but stUl better entitled to bo entered for its com-
mercial importance, which led to its being represented at
Acton BumeU. ^COilfgftitt, Shrewsbury, one of the towns
represented at Acton BurneU, owing much of its importance
to its position in reference to the Welsh border. TOltCCSt,
Worcester, an episcopal see. fl^fotlj, Hereford, mentioned
on the same ground; attention has been already (page 6)
drawn to the very meagre outline of the cathedral. ©karUtH,
* The copies of Higden give the forms Caerliell, Caerlie, Carliel (i. 48).

170 THE BEITISH ISLES.

Anglia. evidently intended for Gloucester, though the name is peculiar;
the earliest Latin form is Clevum (Anton. Itin. 485), or
Glebon {Geog. JBaven. 31); it was famed for its abbey, and
was otherwise important as a fortress and as a place of com-
merce. 28ati)0, an episcopal see (as already stated) at the
period of the map. @lcgltOttta, Glastonbury, the seat of the
most famous monastery in Britain, and the reputed burial-
place of King Arthur, a circumstance which must have
attracted much interest to it about the period of the map,
in consequence of Edward I.'s visit (in 1276) to view the
remains. ^XCESttia, Emter, an episcopal see, and the
capital then, as now, of the south-west. CatOtt, Caen, which
has been, by a strange Munder, transferred from the southern
to the northern side of the channel ; " Cadan " is one of
several intermediate forms between the Latin Cadomum (or
the vernacular name which that represents, perhaps Gadom),
and the modern Caen ; the only explanation that we can offer
for the mistake in its position is, that the two great religious
foundations in that town, the Ahhaye aux Dames and the
Ahlaye aux Hommes, were endowed with valuable estates in
England, and that the name of Caen was more than usually
familiar to the ears of Englishmen (see Britten's letterpress
to Pugin's Normandy, 4to. 1828). TOiUtOTia, Winchester,
which still retained a considerable amount of the importance
it possessed under the early Norman kings. l3o6u or
IBoilia, no doubt intended for Dover ; the place is called
Dubris in the Itinerary (473), but this title was exchanged
in the Middle Ages for forms more nearly approximating to
the modern one ; the place is pictorially represented by a
castle on the coast-line, the distinctive feature which led to
the insertion of the name in the map. CatXtUtta, Canter-
bury (the earlier name, Durovernum, was superseded about
the middle of the 12 th century by Cantuaria, both forms

THE BEITISH ISLES. 171

being used by William of Malmesbury) ; Canterbury was AngUa.
not only an ecclesiastical metropolis but a place of general
importance. i^OUCCSttta, Bochester (the Durobrivse of the
Itinerary, and the Eofa of William of Malmesbury, which
we presume to be a modification of the radical part of the
LatiQ name " brivae "), an episcopal see, but not otherwise of
much importance.

In WaUia, the mountainous character of the surface is WaUia.
represented by a chain of heights on the western coast, and
by the lofty summit of ,Stiai00l(OtT-, Snowdon : the name
occurs in Peter Langtoft's Chron. (ii. 240, Hearne's ed.) as a
district name, answering to our Snowdonia. Three towns
only are named Camarijatt, Cuntocg, and Sit ©abt ; the
latter the most famous of the Welsh sees, and the two
former military stations in the wars between Edward I. and
the Welsh, and the sites of two most famous castles founded
by him.

In Scotia the Go-amjoians are described under the name Scotia.
JKutlCtij, which is (we beHeve) stiH current as. the iadi-
genous name of the district ; m point of sound the name
strictly accords with that of the British (Cymric) word
Mynydd " mountain," but whether this or a Graelic synonym
lies at the root of the name we do not pretend to say. The
name 3L0Utl)iatt, Lothian, occurs as a provincial title ; the
form Loudonia occurs in the Buik of the Chronicles, ii. 423.
The towns noticed are 33eri)JiC, an important fortress in the
period of the Scottish wars ; 2^oJteS6urg, Boxburgh, another
border fortress of importance ; S>X. ^XitiX, St. Andrews, an
episcopal see, and a place of great sanctity, as the reputed
depository of the bones of St. Andrew (Higden, i. 37);
ffiiCtl&Utsft, ^* ^^^ period rising to the position of the
chief town, though not as yet constituted the capital;
(^TthttaS &* Solb*' -P^'"^^' iiii<ier its old designation of St.

172 THE BEITISH ISLES.

Johnestoun {Btdk of the. Chronicles, iii. 101, 297, 1818), the
capital of Scotland before Edinburgh; and '^txitXlZ, Aberdeen,
which in those days ranked next to Perth and Edinburgh.
Hibernia. In Hibernia,' mountains are introduced along the N". E.
coast. The isolated hiU placed near Kildare we take to be
the "Hul of Kylar," whence, according to the legend, the
stones for the erection of Stonehenge were conveyed by
Merlin's orders (Eobert of Gloucester's Chron., Hearne's ed.
i. p. 145). Two rivers are named, the ^c|)0tl0, Shannon,
noticed by Orosius, i. 2, under the name Scana, and the
iSatttiC, which is represented as running, across the island
from sea to sea; probably the Bann is intended, but Gough
thinks it to be the Boyne. The intention of the carto-
grapher in drawing the river right across the island may
possibly have been to mark the boundary of Ulster, SElbcStt,
the only one of the provinces which hfe has noticed. The
tribes of the 10^cla6rt and |LuC£ttt, on opposite sides of the
Shannon, are introduced in accordance with Orosius, i. 2.
The towns are ffl:elt(ara CtbitaS SanctC 33rtgilie, KUdare, the
city of St. Bridget ; ^rttttata Ct&itaS ,S. ^atriCtt, Armagh,
the city of St. Patrick, a famous seat of learning in the
Middle Ages; iSCTXCUt, Bangor, another ecclesiastical town
of note, now visited only for its interesting ruins ; and
IBibcUtt, Dublin, (the same form is used by Hoveden, iv.
29, and a similar one, Develyn, by Peter Langtoft).

A few smaller islands are placed in the seas surrounding
the British Isles, viz.: — Hatl ; IttSUla ^btUTtt ; and EttSUla
^ttrtUtU, which we take to be introduced in iLLustration of
the legend of St. Brandan (see above, under Fortunatse Insulee,
page 106); the Insula Arietum being the " Yloude of Shepe,"
where " every shepe was as grete as an ox," and " there is never
colde wether but ever sommer ; " and the Insula Avium, the
" Ylonde of Byrdes," on which was " a fayre tree full of bowes,

THE BEITISH ISLES. 173

and on every bough sate a fayre byide, and they sate so Insula
thycke on the tree that unneth ony lefe of the tree myght Arietum,
be seen ; " these birds told St. Brandan that they were fallen
angels, but not for any serious offence (Percy Society's
Legend of St. Brandan). Another explanation may be
offered for the name Insula Arietum, namely Ramsey, off
the coast of Pembroke, but this would leave Insula Avium
unaccounted for, and moreover the position of Ramsey does
not suit. An island, depicted but not named, at the mouth
of the Tweed, may be intended for Holy Island or Lindisfarn,
noticed by Higden {Polychron. i. 44). Two islands off the
south coast, named f^rccla and UtttCnCtUtn, are unknown
to us ; the pseudo Eichard of Cirencester gives Herculea as
the Latin for Lundy, but on what authority we know not ;
this, if well founded, may furnish an explanation of Heccla :
the only other suggestion we can offer is that the name is
in some way a mistake for Vecta, Isle of Wight. With
regard to Vinencium, it may have originated in the con-
fusion of the entry referring to UsJiant in the Itinerary,
509, where the names Uxantis Sina have in some copies
been combined in a single word 'of strange aspect. Finally,
we have to notice a Si&illa off the southern point of
Ireland, and a second .SbtllS off the northern point of
Scotland. The term Scylla was applied by mediaeval writers
apparently to a dangerous eddy or whirlpool, as well as to a
rock. So Hoveden, iii. 6 7 : — " SiUa semper evomit et in
altum jactat undas," and so again Higden, i. 44 : — " Vorago
naves attrahens instar Scyllse seu Charybdis." Paulus
Diaconus {Be Gest. Zangoh. i. 4) speaks of two voragines as
lying between Britain and Spain, and to each he applies the
title of wnbilious maris. The southern Svilla in the map
mav possibly have some reference to the Scilly Isles.

INDEX

OF THE NAMES OF PLACES AND OBJECTS

ON THE

HEEEFORD MAPPA MUNDI.

Abbkeviations — Fl. = Pluvius ; I. = Insula ; L. = Lacus ; M. = Mare ;
Ms. = Mons ; Mts. = Montes ; Pr. = Promontorium ; S. = Sinus.

Abana, Fl., 74.
Abamu, Ms., 77.
Abertene, 172.
Abides (Eg.), 85.
Abides (Mys.), 69.
Abinna, Ms., 112.
Abisaris regnum, 29.
Acaron, 76.
Acesines, FL, 29.
Acben, Fl., 63.
Achmea, 1., 121.
Acrooeraum, Mts., 66.
Actua, 78.
Adaaum, I., 108.
Adiabeni, 73.
Adrepola, 132.
Adria, 129.
AdriaticHS, S., 112.
Adrumetus, 95.
Africa, 90, seq.
Afrieus, 20.
Agrestis, 20.
Agrigene, 116.
Agriopbagi, 106.
Agrippina Colonia, 116.
Alani, 138.
Alanus, Fl., 138.
Albana, Fl., 150.

Albani, 62.
Albatia, I., 48.
Albstad, 152.
Alexandria (Eg.), 88.
Alexandria (Ind.), 36.
Aligardamana, Pr., 27.
Alitne, Ms., 89.
AUopectea, I., 121.
Alpes Gottice, 128.
Alticium, 132.
Ambari, 101.
Amfidus, FL, 128.
Amfipolis, 135.
Ammone, 77.
Amsiga, FL, 97.
Ancona, 130.
Andegavis, 146.
Andripolis, 72.
Ane, FL, 165.
Aneso, FL, 153.
Anglia, 164.
Antioohia (Pisid.), 68.
Antiochia (Syr. ), 76.
Antonini Monasteria, 82.
Antrepophagi, 51.
Apolloiiia (Cyren)., 92.
Apollonia (Maced.), 135.
Appamna, 76.

Appolites, 19.
Appollonis, Pr., 94.
Apteropbon, 59.
Apulia, 129.
Aq[ue Tibilitane, 97.
Aquesia, 148.
Aquileya, 132.
Aquilo, 19.
Aquisgranum, 146.
Aqviitania, 143, 144.
Aquitanious, S., 24, 122.
Arabioa Deserta, 81.
Arabona, 155.
Aracusia, 29, 73.
Aragona, 125.
Arar, FL, 142.
Aram, FL, 71.
Arber Sicca, 25.
Area Noe, 69.
Aroandes, 70.
Archas, 76.
Ardens, Ms., 82.
Are Alexandri, 57.
Aree Alexandri, 28.
Aree Pbilenorum, 92.
Arelas, 148.
Aretusa, L., 70.
Arfaxat, FL, 139.

176

INDEX.

Argire, I., 34.
Argo, 134.
Arhmata, 172.
Arietum, I., 172.
Ariminum, 130.
Ariobarzanes, Ms., 66.
Armenia, 70.
Arna Blanca, Fl., 128.
Ai-non, Fl., 77.
Aroer, 77.
Arsinoe, 92.
Ascalon, 78.
Asia, 23.
Aspala, FL, 128.
Assiria, 73.
Astabus, Fl., 86.
Astobora, FL, 86.
Astrixis, Ms., 100.
Atalia, 68.
Athene, 134.
Atblas, Ms., 135.
Atrax, FL, 143.
Augee, Mts., 67.
Augusta (ItaL), 130.
Augusta (Eeet.), 163.
Augustudunum, 145.
Aulona, 133.
Aurei, Mts., 28.
Aurelianum, 146.
Auster, 19.
Auster-Africus, 20.
AutUans, Ms., 100.
Autisiodorum, 145.
Auxonta, FL, 142.
Avalerion, 30.
Aven, FL, 165.
Avemia, 144.
Avernis, 147.
Ayium, I., 172.

Babel Tttbeis, 74.
Babylonia, 74.
Babylonia (Eg.), 86.
Bactria, 45.
Bactrum, 45.
Bactrus, Fl., 45.
Baioarii, 153.
Baleares, I., 113.

Balsami Arbor, 25.
Bande, FL, 172.
Basella, 126.
Basiliscus, 104.
Basnus, 88.
Bathe, 170.
Bayona, 148.
Becia Major, 153.
Belgica, 143.
Benacus, L., 127.
Benour, 172.
Beneventum, 131.
Berenice (Cyren.), 92.
Berenice (Eg.), 84.
Beritus, 76.
Bersabee, 80.
Berwic, 171.
Bethel, 79.
Bethleem, 79.
Beulacum, 169.
Bina, Ms., 124.
Biturrica, 126.
Bizatium, 94.
Bizes, I., 54.
Bizo, 51.
Blemee, 103.
Boemarii, 151.
Boemaron, FL, 48.
Boemia, 151.
Boetis, FL, 124.
Bonacus, 75.
Bononia (Gall.), 145.
Bononia (Ital.), 130.
Boreas, 19.
Boreas, FL, 46.
Boreum, Pr., 46.
Bosforus Tracius, 112.
Brabantia, 144.
Braga, 152.
Bragala, FL, 96.
Bragaria, 126.
Brandanus, 106.
Brema, 152.
Britannia, I., 164.
Bruncena, 94.
Brundisium, 130.
Brusutus, 98.
Bruttii, 129.

Bucephala, 28.
Buglossa, 148.
Bulgarii, 138.
Bumia, 69.
Burdegala, 147.
Burghimare, 147.
Burgundia, 144.
Burh, 146.
Byzantium, 94.

Cabilla, 148.
Cadan, 170.
Cadrusima, 36.
Caini filii, 51.
Calabria, 129, 130.
Calcidonia, 69.
Calcnia, FL, 124.
Caldea, 74.
Calearsus, L., 90.
Calea.s, 19.
Calippso, I., 117.
Calhpolis, 136.
Calpel, Ms., 99.
Calvarie, Ms., 79.
Cama, FL, 153.
Camder, 152.
Camelus, 45.
Campania (Gall.), 144.
Campania (ItaL), 129.
Cana, 78.
Oanaria, I., 107.
Candab, 146.
Canea, FL, 115.
Canna, 116.
Cannar, Ms., 98.
Canopus, I., 119.
Canospatos, L, 120.
Canturia, 170.
Capadoeia, 67.
Capharica, I., 55.
Capile, 148.
Capraria, I., 107.
Capua, 131.
Carambis, I., 121.
Carax, 72.
Carcanus, 74.
Cardia, 136.
Caria, I., 117.

Caribdis, 116.
Carimaspi, 61.
Cariz, Ms., 79.
Carlua, 169.
Cannama, 72.
Carmelnm, Ms., 78.
Cam, 155.
Camarvan, 171.
Camotum, 146.
Carpatlias, I., 119.
Carpatum, M., 119.
Cartago, 95.
Caspia, 52.
Caspie Portee, 64.
Caspinm, M., 21.
Cassica, 30.
Cassiopia, I., 117.
Cassius, Ms. (Eg.), 81.
Cassius, Ms. (Syr.), 76.
Castello Novo, 169.
Castra Alexandri, 23.
Catana, 116.
Catapas, 95.
Catharum, 60.
CatMnna, 84.
Caucasus, Ms., 35.
Caul, I., 114.
Cebentia, Ms., 141.
Celdara, 172.
Celtica, 143.
Cenomani, 146.
Cephalenta, I., 118.
Cesarea (Cappad.), 67.
Cesarea (Maurit.), 99.
Cesarea PHlippi, 78.
Cesariensis, 97.
Cestria, 169.
Choolissima, 49.
Chocs, I., 120.
Chusta, Fl., 88.
Cicladea, I., 118.
Cicone, 53.
Cidera, FL, 150.
Cidona, 117.
CiUcia, 68.
Cimeraoum, 145-
Cimerisum, M., 112.
Cincinnus, S., 68.

INDEX.

Ciuocepliales, 159.
Ciprus, I., 120.
Cii-cius, 19.
Cireue, 92.
Cirenensis, 91.
Cirenus, 80.
Cirera, 184.
Cirtenna, 98.
Cison, Fl., 78.
Cleopatre regnum, 30.
Cleoe, Ms., 6, 165.
Climax, Ms., 88.
Clippeas, 95.
CKteron, Fl., 67.
Cocadilus, 85.
Colcestria, 168.
Colchis, 64.
Colne, Fl., 165.
Colubraria, I., 114.
Comagena, 70.
Compostella, 125.
Concitus, FL, 70.
Concordia, 132.
Constantinopolis, 136.
Corarus, FL, 73.
Corcina, 32.
Corduba, 126.
Cornubia, 166.
Corsica, I., 114.
Coruus, FL, 138.
Cotomare, 27.
Cotonia, 131.
Crampnum, 135.
Craphidis regnum, 29.
Cratulus, 89.
Creta, I., 116.
Crise, I., 34.
Criselida, I., 54.
Cristoas, 39.
Cuna, FL, 142.
Cunwey, 171.
Curumbi, 95.
Cuya, 92.
Cuza, 79.
Cydnus, FL, 68.

Daohe, 52.
Daoia, 137.

M

177

Dahais, 73.
Dalida, FL, 72.
Damascus, 77.
Dan, 78.
Dan, FL, 77.
Danaper, FL, 138.
Dani, 157.
Danubii fous, 150.
Danus, FL, 125.
Dara, Fl., 100.
Dardania, 135.
Decapolis, 78.
De, FL, 165.
Decusa, 75.
Dedalii, Mts., 31.
Delinum, 132.
Delos, I., 118.
Deles (Delphi), 134.
Delta, 88.
Desipea, L, 114.
Didyme, I., 115.
Diomedis, I., 117.
Diospolis, 78.
Divelin, 172.
Dobu, 170.
Don, FL, 165.
Dorius, FL, 124.
Dracones, 34.
Dravus, FL, 154.
Drepanum, Pr., 33.
Duracium, 132.
Durdania, FL, 143.
Durem, 169.

Eale, 43.
Ebal, Ms., 79.
Eboracum, 169.
Ebos, I., 113.
Ebredunum, 148.
Ebron, 80.
Ebureda, 130.
Ecu.sium, 98.
Edenburgh, 171.
Edissa, Ii, 114.
Etfraim, Ms., 78.
Egea, 112.
Egiptus, 86.
Eles, FL, 136.

178

INDEX.

Eleusia, 134.
Elicon, Ms., 133.
Ely, 168.
Emisa, Fl., 150.
Ene, El., 165.
Enos, 27.
Eolie, I., 114.
Eonee, I., 47.
Ephesus, 68.
Eraclea, 69.
Eridanus, Fl., 127.
Ermus, Fl., 68.
Esisua, I., 115.
Essedones, 51, 61.
Eta Pomponiana, I., 114.
Ethara, 86.
Ethiopes, 101, seq.
Ethna, Ms., 115.
Euboea, I., 120.
Eudemon, 74.
Eufrates, Fl., 25.
Eunoolii, 64.
Europa, 23.
EuTus, 17.
Eurus-Nothus, 20.
Euscus, Fl., 71.
Euxinum, M., 112.
Euzaree, Mts., 100.
Excestria, 170.
Exe, Fl., 165.
Eysa, Fl., 142.

Fakdin, 152.
Fareie, I., 162.
Farfar, Fl., 74.
Fasga, Ms., 77.
Fatna, 155.
Fauni, 83.
Favonius, 20.
Fencusa, I., 116.
Fernus, Fl., 76.
Festia, I., 115.
Fialus, L,, 82.
Ficaria, I., 114, 115.
Fiiidus, Ms., 133.
Fistula, Fl., 150.
Flaminia, 129.
Flaiidria, 144.

Florentia, 131.
Fluentia, 146.
Formice, 105.
Fortunate, I., 106.
Francia, 144.
Frigia, 69.
Frisones, 151.
Frondisia, I., 34.
Frousacea, 147.

Gades, 112.
Galaauth, Ms., 77.
Galata, I., 115.
Galatia, 69.
Galencia, 126.
Galilee, M., 77.
GaUia, 141.
Gallia VII. populorum,

143.
Gamara, 93.
Ganges, Fl., 38.
Gangines, 35,
Gangiues, EtMopes, 100,

103.
Ganzmir, 158.
Garamantes, 93.
Garganus, Ms., 127.
Gasoonia, 144.
Gauloena, I., 108.
Gaza, 79.

Gaza Municipium, 98.
Gazan, 131.
Gazera, 84.
Geba], Ms., 79.
Gehenue os, 63.
Gelboe, Ms., 80.
Geneis, 127.
Geniva, 148.
Genua, 131.
Gerara, 79.
Gei-mania, 149.
Germanicus, S., 21, 157.
Geruuda, Fl., 142.
Gesortia, 145.
Getulea, 97.
Getull, 93.
Gigantes, 27.
Gion, Fl., 25.

Glearum, 169.
Glestonia, 170.
Gog, 58.
Gomor, 77.
Gortina, 117.
Grana, 155.
Griphe, 61.
Griste, 161.

Hbccla, L, 173.
Hecdarum, FL, 71.
Hellada, 134.
Hellas, Fl., 67.
Hellespoutus, 112.
Heraclea, 136.
Herculis Gades, 112.
Heremus, 89.
Hersura, 80.
Hesperidum, I., 107.
Hesperus, Ms., 100.
Hford, 169.
Hibea, 116.
Hibernia, I., 164.
Hiberus, FL, 124.
Hiera, I., 115.
Hilta, I., 114.
Himantopodes, 102.
Hircani, 52, 53.
Hispania, 125.
Histria, 132.
Holandia, 144.
Humber, FL, 165.
Hungari, 155.
Hunni, 46.
Hur, 74.

Hydaspes, FL, 29.
Hylium, 69.
Hyperborei, 56./

Iaboth, fl, 77.
lacobi Templum, 125.
loaya, 134.
Ilerna, 126.
Illiricus, 135.
lira, FL, 141.
India, 28.
Indie, Mts., 28.
Insula, 133.

lope, 78.
lor, Fl., 77.
Ipirus, 134.
Ippone, 97.
luda, 79.

Jampnia, 78.
Jerico, 80.
Jerusalem, 79.
Josaph Vallis, 79.
Judei, 81.
Juga, Ms., 141.
Junonia, I., 107.

Eeesina, 147.
Kiicliam, 169.

Laborintus, 116.
Lacertus, 29.
Lak, Fl., 75.
Lamite, 72.
Lampsacus, 69.
Laodiciam, 76.
Laris, 134.
Lates, Fl., 128.
Latinatus, 145.
Laude, 130.
Lauduni, Ms., 145.
Laureum, 84.
Laxates, FL, 60.
Laybumia, 14.
Lech, Fl., 153.
Lemnos, L, 120.
Leo, 97.

Leocota, L, 115.
Leodium, 146.
Leona, 148.
Leoniun, M., 112.
Leopard, 97.
Leptis Magna, 93.
Lesbos, I., 120.
Lethon, FL, 93.
Leugas, 130.
Leustree, 134.
Libanus, Ms., 76.
Libeum, 115.
Libia, 116.

IJSTDEX.

Libia Cireiiensis, 91.
Liburnia, 132.
Liburnice, I., 118.
Licaonia, 68.
Lious, Fl., 69.
Lidda, Ms., 69.
Ligeris, Fl., 142.
Ligria, 129.
Limogeua, 147.
Lincoln, 168.
Lindeseya, 166.
Linx, 68.
Lipara, L, 114.
Lipsis, 20.
Listra, 68.
Livorus, Ms., 133.
Lix, 98.
Londonia, 168.
Longobardia, 129.
Losanna, 148.
Lotli"uxor, 77.
Louthian, 171.
Luca, 131.
Lucania, 129.
Luceni, 172.
Lugdunum, 148.
Luna, 131.
Lydia, 67.

Macedonia, 135.
Maculea, 135.
Madian, 78, 81.
Madus, Fl. etL., 69.
Magadesburgh, 152.
Magdalum, 86.
Magog, 49, 58.
Magonia Syrtis, 93.
Magoutia, 146.
Mabum, 81.
Maiorca, I., 113.
Malichu, 1., 109.
Malleus, Ms., 32.
Malua, FL, 98.
Man, I., 172.
Manasse, 78.
Mandragora, 87.
Manticora, 43.
Marinia, I., 117.

Marmini Ethiopes, 103.
Marna, Fl., 142.
Marsok, 77.
Massagete, 64.
Massilia, 148.
Mauritania, 97.
Medania, Fl., 142.
Mede, FL, 165.
Media, 71.

Mediterraneum, M., 112.
Mekesus, 88.
Meles, Fl., 67.
Melos, I., 117.
Memarmau, Mts., 45.
Membrona, I., 107.
Memphis, 88.
Mena, L, 119.
Menix, L, 117.
Meotides, Fl., 24, 69.
Mercurii, Tits., 94.
Meiidies, 17.
Meroe, L, 85.
Meros, Ms., 32.
Mesopotamia, 73.
Messana, 116.
Messia, 136.
Mester, FL, 137.
Metima, 75.
Metis, 146.
Metus, L, 114.
Michael, M., 146.
Miles Maris.
Minorga, L, 113.
Minotauri, 64.
Minutada, 68.
Miopar, L, 57.
Mirabilis, I., 57.
Mirrea, 68.
Moabite, 77.
Moin, FL, 150.
Molans, Ms., 49.
Monasteria, 82.
Monoceros, 40.
Monoculi, 37.
Morinus, FL, 125.
Mortuum, M., 77.
Mosa, FL, 141.
Mosella, FL, 141.

180

INDEX.

Moyses, 81.
Mrima, 117.
Muneth, 171.
Murduacia, 126.
Musita, FL, 96.

Naddabeb, 84.
Nametis, 146.
Narbona, 143, 148.
Natabres, 93.
Naxos, I., 119.
Nazaret, 78.
Neapolis, 131.
Neon, I., 119.
Neumis, 146.
Neutoma, I., 119.
Nibei, 82.
Nibie, Mts., 82.
Nicasii, M., 127.
Nicea, 28.
Nicomadibus, 96.
Nicomedia, 69.
Nilaca, I., 114.
Nilus, Fl., 100.
Ninaous, FL, 133.
Ninevee, 73.
Nisa, 134.
Nisibi, 74.
Nola, 132.
Noreya, 158.
Norhanton, 168.
Norhumba, 166.
Noricus, 153.
Normannia, 144.
Novitum, 145.
Nua, 31.
Nucaria, I., 120.
Nucasafris, 46.
Nucbul, FL, 100.
Numidia, 97.
Nuthus, FL, 71.

OCCIDENS, 17.
Ooea, 93.
Octocirims, 46.
Oldelinburgh, 152.
Olerim, I., 148.
Olimpus, Ms., 133.

Oliveti, Ms., 79.
Opbir, I., 34.
Orcades, I., 161.
Oreb, Ms., 91.
Oriens, 17.
Orrea Josephi, 86.
Osca, 147.
Osco, Ms., 35.
Ossa, Ms., 133.
Ostia, 131.
Ostriciiis, 139.
Ostrocbena, 88.
Ou, FL, 142.
Oxeford, 168.
Oxus, FL, 52.

Paotalus, FL, 67.
Padus, FL, 127.
Paflagonia, 67.
Palentia, 148.
Palerna, 115.
Palestina, 79.
PaUande, 39.
Panda, 52.
Pandea, 31.
Pangeus, Ms., 137.
Panisus, 137.
Pannonia, 154.
Papbos, 120.
Papia, 129, 130.
Paradisi porte, 25.
Parcoatras, Ms., 66.
Paretonium, 88.
Parisins, 145.
Parnassus, Ms., 133.
Paropanitates, Ms., 35.
Parthadus, 134.
Parthia, 71.
Pasma, FL, 27.
Patalus, 28.
Patara, 68.
Patavium, 132.
Pathmos, I., 120.
Pathmum, 115.
Patras, 134.
Pazaei, 155.
Pelasium, 88.
Pelicanus, 52.

Pelipolis, 88.
Pellicie, 84.
Pelomm, Ms., 115.
Penagoregea, I., 121.
Pentapolis, 91.
Pergenpaulius, 68.
Peroua, 126.
Persepolis, 72.
Persida, 71.
Persidia, 68.
Petavium, 155.
Petra, 77.
Phanesii, 48.
Pbenicis, ProT., 76.
Phenix, 85.
Pbiarotb, 85.
Philenorum Aree, 92.
Pbilippi, 135.
PMIU, 103.
PMson, FL, 25.
Pbori Eegnum, 29.
Phytonis, Pr., 92.
Pictavis, 147.
Pigmei, 28.
Pines, 67.
Pineus, FL, 133.
Pipereas silvas, 55.
Pireneus, Ms., 141.
Piscaria, FL, 128.
Pisoinus, 129.
Placentia, 130.
Planasia, I., 114.
Pobbrota, 32.
Pomponiana, L, 114.
Prasii, 32.
Prienna, 68.
Propontis, 112.
Provincia, 143, 144.
Prusias, 69.
Ptholomaida, 92.
Ptbolomayda, 85.
Piidpud, 95.
Puteolis, 131.

Rages, 71.
Eamata, 80.
Rameses, 86.
Earapolis, 137.

Ranandus, Fl., 29.
Ratispona, 153.
Eavenna, 130.
Eeaue, 131.
Eecia Minor, 153.
Eecordauorum, Ms., 141.
Eem, Fl., 151.
Eemesburgh, 154.
Eemis, 145.
Eeon, 131.
Einocerura, 81.
Einosoeros, 40.
Riphei, Mts., 59.
Eobasci, 62.
Eodanus, FL, 143.
Eodos, I., 120.
Eokesburg, 171.
Eoma, 130.
Eotomagum, 145.
Eoucestria, 171.
Eugone, 98.
Eiisadden, 98.
Eusia, 147.
Eussicada, 97.

Sabaa, 79.
Sabaria, 154.
Sahrata, 93.
Sabrina, FL, 165.
Saddi, Ms., 98.
Sala, 151.
Salamandra, 87.
Salamis, 120.
Saldis, 98.
Salem, 79.
Salema, 131.
Salinarum, L., 96.
Salodunim, 148.
Salum, FL, 98.
Salze, FL, 153.
Salzeburgh, 154.
Samara, Pr., 39.
Samarcan, 52.
Samosaka, 73.
Sanacolis, 98.
S. Andr, 171.
S. Dari, 171.
S. Joh', 171.

INDEX.

Sandaliotes, I., 114.
Saracena, 80.
Sardinia, I., 113.
Sarmate, 156.
Sarmatbarum Eupes, 155.
Sarnus, FL, 128.
Sarta, FL, 142.
Satirii, 82.
Saiiromate, 62.
Savus, FL, 154.
Saxones, 151.
Saxonia, 150, 151.
Scena, I., 108.
Schene, FL, 172.
Scicia, 155.
Scinopodes, 102.
Scioena, 134.
Scitotauri, 60.
Sclavi, 151, 156.
Scobesbiri, 169.
Scopulus navis, 117.
Scorpio, 153.
Scotia, 164.
Secuana, FL, 142.
Sentungia, 147.
Sepbar, Ms., 29, 33.
Septem Montes, 99.
Septentrio, 17, 19.
Septimana, 96.
Sercles, 145.
Seres, 48, 51.
Sertos, 136.
Sestos, 136.
Siene, 84. i
Sigga, Ms., 98.
Sile, 79.
Simla, 159.
Sinay, Ms., 81.
Sinus, 133.
Siracusa, 116.
Siria, 76.
Sirinum, 155.
Sirtes Majores, 92.
Sixtes Minores, 93.
Sirtinice, I., 108.
Sitbe, 60.
Sitbe palme, 89.
Siticum Abidos, 69.

181

Sitifensis, 97.
Sitiphi, 99.
Snawedon, 171.
Snotingbam, 169.
Sobas, 76.
Sochotb, 86.
Sodom, 77.
Sogdiani, 52.
Sol, 83.
Sonfenta, 131.
Sphinx, 83.
Spitacus, 28.
Spopodes, 48.
Stenas, 88.
Stipa, I., 114.
Stitualli, 136.
Stongile, I., 115.
Stopcemes, I., 114.
Stripodes, I., 115.
Sturi, FL, 165.
Suavia, 153.
Subsolanus, 19.
Suesia, 145.
Suevus, Ms., 150.
Suffetula, 96.
Suffibus, 95.
SvUla, 116, 173.

Taboe, Ms. , 78.
Tabule Testamenti, 81.
Tafnis, 89.
Tafnus, 88.
Tagus, FL, 128.
Tamise, FL, 165.
Tamor, FL, 165.
Tapbana, I., 34.
Tapsus, I., 116.
Tarentum, 130.
Tarsus, 68.
Tarus, FL, 127.
Taurus, Ms., 66.
Telmes, 68.
Tenedos, I., 120.
Tenedes, I., 166.
Terasia, I., 115.
Termopile, 133.
Terracoua, 126.
Terraconta, I., 58.

182

INDEX.

Terns, 129.
Thasos, I., 120.
TheTjaida, 85.
Thelea, 134.
Theman, 75.
Theode, I., 107.
Thessalonica, 135.
Thiberia, 70.
Tholomaida, 78.
Tiberis, Fl., 128.
Ticmus, Fl., 127.
Tigolopes, 75.
Tigris, 53.
Tigris, Fl., 25, 70.
Tile, I., 38.
Tile, Ultima, 162.
Timavus, FL, 35.
Tin, FL, 165.
Tingitana, 97.
Tipassa, 98.
Tirus, 78.
Tize, FL,155.
Tlantica Deserta, 100.
Tlede, FL, 165.
Trainee, S., 135.
Toletum, 126.
Tolosa, 147.
Tornacum, 145.
Tortosa, 126.
Traceas, 19.
Traoiauopolis, 136.
Trenta, FL, 165.
Triphioia, I., 55.
Tripolis, 76.

Tripolitana, 92.
Triton, L. etFL, 101.
Trocodite, 104.
Troja, 69.
Trucia, 135.
Tubalum, 135.
Tudertina, 131.
Turchi, 58.
Turingia, 151.
Turonis, 147.
Tuscia, 129.
Tustmm, 96.

UCAEIA, 1., 119.
Uctica, 95.
Tigolopes, 75.
Ulvestr, 172.
TJmbrosi, Mts., 63.
TJrsus, 156.
Use, FL, 165.

Valia, 129.
Velabri, 172.
Velus aureum, 64.
Vendum, 146.
Venicia, I., 118.
Vercellis, 130.
Veredunum, 146.
Verona (Gall.), 146.
Verona (ItaL), 130.
Vinaria, I., 107.
Vinencium, I., 173.

"Wadus, fl, 73.
WalKa, 164.

Wanth, FL, 151.
Wid, FL, 165.
Wie, FL, 165.
"Wintona, 170.
Wircestr, 169.
Wisara, Fl. (Gall.), 143.
Wisara, FL (Germ.), 150.
Wltumus, 19.
Wormacia, 146.

Yathb, 125.
Yconium, 68.
Ycusia, 72.
Yda, Ms., 116.
Ydrontum, 130.
Ygicolis, 98.
Ygnium, 98.
Yler, FL, 128.
Ylis, FL, 60.
Yndus, FL, 29.
Yne, FL, 153.
Yonia, 68.
Yppanis, FL, 27.
Yppus Diart., 95.
Ysauria, 68.
Ysland, 162.
Yssacar, 78.

Zabulon, 78.
Zacintus, I., 117.
Zephirus, 20.
Zeugis, 95.
Zimarim, 33.
Zosimas, 82.

Printed ly R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh.