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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.
SECRETARY AND TREASURER, JOHN M‘LAREN, JvnN.,
FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH,
EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOC LET Y. SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. 1887.
LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN
2A OLED REY 1. 51't
POA Day UETORL A. EERE
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CONTENTS OF VOL XI.
The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the-respective authors.
Il.
rE
ry.
Vie
ae
VII.
Wil.
. Address delivered at the Thirty-First Annual Meeting. By Hucu
CLEecHORN of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E.,
The Woods of New Brunswick : Being a description of the Trees of the Province available for economic purposes, prepared by order of the Hon. James Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New Brunswick, for use at the International Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884. By L, W. Barvey, Ph.D., Professor of Natural History in the University of New Brunswick ; and EpwarpD JAcK, C.E., Surveyor of Crown Lands, .
On the Plantations on the Estate of Sorn, in the County of a N.B. By Davin Barciay, Forester, ‘ ;
Natural Reproduction of Forests. By JoHN M‘LEAN, Forester, Edinburgh, : : ; :
Pruning : Its Ornament and Utility. By ALex. T. GILLANDERs, Forester, Skibo Castle, Dornoch,
On the New and Rare Conifer at Penrhyn Castle, North Wales. With Illustrations. By ANneus D. Wepster, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, North Wales, : : :
INTERNATIONAL ForREsTRY EXHIBITION, EpINBURGH, 1884, ScoTTisH ARBORICULTURAL SoctEty, 1854-1884,
Address delivered at the Thirty-Second Annual Meeting. By Hucu CLEGHORN of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., :
REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF THE HovusE oF Commons, 1885, ON FoRESTRY,
The Indian Forest School. By Major F. Bariey, R.E., F.R.G.S., Director of the Forest School, Dehra Dan, N.W.P., India,
. The Douglas Fir (Abies Douglasii, Lindley). By Aneus D.
WexssTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales,
. The Formation of Plantations, and their Management for the First
Twelve Years. By Davin A, GLEN, Assistant Forester, Gartshore, Kirkintilloch,
PAGE
115
119
155
165
173
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XLV.
xeVALIE
XVIII. XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
CONTENTS.
The Corsican Pine (Pinus laricio). By ANncus D. WepstTer, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales,
The Present State and Future Prospects of Arboriculture in North Lancashire. By Gronrcr Dopns, Overseer, Wyreside Cottage, Lancaster,
Report on a Visit in September 1881 to the Scottish and English
Forests by Professors and Students from the Forest School, Nancy, France. By M. Borps, Inspector of French Forests, .
The Formation and Management of Game Coverts. By ANGUS D. WessTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales,
ForESTRY IN France. By Major F. Baruey, R.E.,
. Address delivered at the Thirty-Third Annual Meeting. By
Hueu CiecHorn of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E.,
A Forest TouR AMONG THE DuNEs oF Gascony. By Major F. Battery, R.E.,.
REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE OF THE HovsE oF CoMMONS, 1886, oN FoRESTRY,
. Specifications of Works to be Executed in the Erection of a
Forester’s Cottage ; with Plans and Sections. By Wm. Mac- InTosH, 5 Thistle Street, Edinburgh, .
On the Rearing and Management of Hardwood Plantations. By A. M‘D. Grant, Assistant Forester, Hopetoun, South Queensferry,
Economic Forestry. By Professor G. 8. BoutcEr, London,
The Native Trees and Shrubs of Carnarvonshire. By ANaus D. Wepssrer, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales,
On the Plantations and Trees on the Estate of Brahan, in the
County of Ross. By ALEXANDER PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Glentruim, Kingussie, .
Specifications of Works to be Executed in the Erection of a Forester’s Cottage ; with Plans and Sections. By ALEXANDER PITCAITHLEY, Forester, Glentruim, Kingussie,
On the Present State and Future Prospects of Arboriculture in Hampshire. By Joun Smrru, Surveyor, Romsey, Hampshire,
Hedgerow and Field Timber. By ANcus D, WezstEr, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Wales,
L’ExposiTIoN Forestikre INTERNATIONAL DE 1884. Report
by Professor Reuss, of the-Nancy Forest School, on the Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884,
PAGE
181
364
oO — WO Dp =
co
CONTENTS.
APPENDIX (A)
. Former Presidents,
. List of Members, corrected to J ae 1885,
. Subjects offered for Competition during 1884-85,
. Office-Bearers for 1884-85,
. Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish eae Society for
year 1883-84,
APPENDIX (B)
. Former Presidents, F . List of Members, corrected to jal 1886, . Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish Asbortgatettel Society for
year 1884-85,
APPENDIX ()
_ Former Presidents, . List of Members, corrected to oe 1887, . Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish Arboricultural Society for
year 1885-86,
iil
rh “I
bo o2)
46
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY.
VOL. XIL—PART IL.
SECRETARY AND TREASURER,
JOHN M‘LAREN, Jun,
FELLOW OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, EDINBURGH,
PPL OLLI APPS IREAPAD LAPP PARP KPRP,PRG PRP LP LPP Pn
EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY.
SOLD BY DOUGLAS & FOULIS, CASTLE STREET. MDCOCLXXXV.
WORKS ON FORESTRY AND GARDENING,
New and Greatly Enlarged Edition. THE FORESTER: A Practica, TREATISE ON THE PLANTING, REARING,
AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF Forest TREES. By JAMES Brown, LL.D., Inspector of, and teporter on, Woods and Forests, Benmore House, Port Elgin, Ontario; Assisted by his Son, Grorck E. Brown, Forester, Cumloden, Newton-Stewart. Fifth Edition, Enlarged and Improved. Royal 8vo, with nearly 200 Engrayings on Wood, 36s. ‘Tt is an authoritative guide, and a reference book which no forester should be without.”— Land and Water. ‘He has condensed a perfect encyclopedia of everything relating to woodcraft as now under- stood and practised in every part of the civilised world. . . . He does all that printed in- structions can do to supply the place of a regular school training in forestry.” —Pall Mall Gazette.
New and Enlarged Edition.
THE LARCH: A Practicat TREATISE ON ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT. By CuristopHerR Youne Micuie, Forester, Cullen House. Second Edition, with an additional Chapter on ‘‘ THE Larcu Disease.” With Illustrations of remarkable Trees. Crown 8yo, 7s. 6d.
“The work isa most valuable addition to our standard literature on arboriculture. The lover of trees will find the book full of curious and interesting material ; while to the owners and managers of woodlands the volume must prove of the highest practical utility.”—Banj Journal.
‘‘ Within its pages the planter will find more information upon the best modes of treatment and culture of the larch-tree, whether in the nursery or plantation, than in any other book extant in the English language. ”_Journal of Forestry.
HANDY BOOK OF THE FLOWER GARDEN; Being Practical Directions for the Propagation, Culture, and Arrangement of Plants in Flower Gardens all the year round. With Engraved and Coloured Plans. By Davin THomson, Gardener to His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, K.G., at Drumlanrig. A New and Enlarged Edition, crown $yo, 7s. 6d.
“Tts author is entitled to great praise for the simple and clear manner in which he has explained the cultural directions, which, if carefully complied with, will enable the non- professional floriculturist to grow plants as W ell as any gardener.”—Gar deners’ Chronicle.
HANDY BOOK OF FRUIT CULTURE UNDER GLASS. By Davip THomson, Gardener to His Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, K.G., at Drumlanrig. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
“*No work of the kind of which we have any knowledge is at all to be compared with this.
It is the result of ripe experience, close thought, and ample acquaintance with the subject in
all its parts.”—Scotsman.
A BOOK ABOUT ROSES. By S. Reynotps Hotr. Eighth and Cheaper Edition, Revised, 3s. 6d. “His work may now be considered the most complete guide to this interesting branch of floricultural art.”—Saturday Review. ““At once charming and instructive. . The practical questions of position, soil, manure, and selection are carefully and exhaustively treated.”— Standard.
CULTIVATED PLANTS: Tuerr PropacaTion AND IMPROVEMENT. By F. W. Bursiver, Author of ‘‘ Domestic Floriculture,” etc., ete. With 191 Engravings, and Index. Crown 8vo, pp. 630, 12s. 6d.
‘“This is a book not for the ordinary villa gardener, but for the professional gardener, and for those amateurs who, by their interest in the pursuit, and the skill and patience they bring to bear upon it, rank in success and authority with the professionals. . . . Jt is for scientific professionals and amateurs that Mr Burbidge has produced this extremely complete and valuable manual upon the propagation and improvement of plants.”—Standard.
DOMESTIC FLORICULTURE, WINDOW-GARDENING, AND
FLORAL DEcoRATIONS. By F. W. Bu RBIDGE. Crown Svo, with upwards of 200 Illustrations on Wood. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, 7s. 6d.
“This book will meet the case of thousands who love flowers, and know not how to begin— or, having begun, know not how to go on in collecting and cultiy ating them. ae Iti isa model of painstaking accuracy and good taste.” Gardeners’ nage 3
THE HANDY BOOK OF BEES, AND THEIR PROFITABLE
MANAGEMENT. By A. Pettigrew. Fourth Edition, Enlarged, Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
“The author of this volume is evidently a a practical man, and knows a great deal more about bees and their habits than most of the bee-keepers in England ; indeed, he may be said to bea very master in the art of bee mysteries.”—Bell’s i908 in London.
SHEEP DIPPING: A Dicesr or tHe Larest IMPROVEMENTS AND PRrac-
TICE CONNECTED WITH THE PROCESS. By Davin Woop. Crown 8yo, 1s.
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EpinzsurcH anp Lonpon.
ik é
gt
ADVERTISEMENTS.
“SILVER MEDAL,” Highest Award for Hot Houses, at the International Forestry Exhibition, Edinburgh, 1884.
MACKENZIE & MONCUR,
HORTICULTURAL BUILDERS
AND
HEATING ENGINEERS, UPPER GROVE PLACE, EDINBURGH,
AND
ST ANDREW’S CROSS, GLASGOW.
Conservatories, Greenhouses, Vineries, Foreing Houses, and all kinds of Horticultural Buildings erected in the most approved manner in any part of Great Britain or Ireland, at strictly Moderate Rates.
/Ilustrated Sheets on Application. Splendid Illustrated Catalogues, Price 8/6.
PLANS AND SPECIAL DESIGNS.
Heating Apparatus on the High and Low Pressure fitted up in Churches, Halls, Mansions, and other Buildings.
Satisfactory Results in all Cases Guaranteed.
ADVERTISEMENTS,
ESTABLISHED UPWARDS
OF A CENTURY.
FOREST TREES.
UR STOCK is Very Hardy and Well Rooted; Grown on an
Exposed Situation at our Fellside Nurseries. We have this
Season planted a considerable acreage of Forest and Ornamental Trees in several districts with satisfactory results.
Estimates given and Samples forwarded, with Special Prices for Large Quantities.
ORNAMENTAL TREES,—For Park, Street, or Avenue Planting.
CONIFER A..—Choice Specimens of all the Best Varieties having been recently transplanted, are fit for removal with perfect safety.
FRUIT TREES.—Standard Pyramid and Trained. Our Stock comprises all Leading Varieties.
ROSES! ROSES!! ROSES!!! We have Many Thousands, and Grow Only Best Varieties.
FLOWERING SHRUBS.—In Great Variety.
LANDSCAPE GARDENING.—We are rapidly making this Branch a Feature in our Business, and having in our employment an Efficient Landscape Artist, we are in a position to furnish Plans and Estimates on Shortest Notice.
Genuine Seeds for the Farm and Garden.
Dutch Bulbs from the Most Noted Growers.
Descriptive Catalogues Post Free on Application.
WILLIAM FELL & CO,
Seed Merchants, Nurserymen, and Landscape Gardeners,
HEXHAM.
CONTENTS.
The Society, as a body, is not to be considered responsible for any statements or opinions advanced in the several papers, which must rest entirely on the authority of the respective author's.
I, Address delivered at the Thirty-First Annual Meeting. By Hucu
CLEGHORN of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E.,
II. The Woods of New Brunswick: Being a Description of the Trees
ITI.
of the Province available for economic purposes, prepared by order of the Hon. James Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New Brunswick, for use at the International Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884. By L. W. Bartey, Ph.D., Professor of Natural History in the University of New Brunswick; and
EpWARD JAck, C.E., Surveyor of Crown Lands, . =
On the Plantations on the Estate of Sorn, in the County of Ayr, N.B. By Davin Barcuay, Forester,
IY. Natural Reproduction of Forests. By JoHN M‘LEAN, Forester,
Edinburgh,
VY. Pruning: Its Ornament and Utility. By Atex. T. GILLANDERS,
Forester, Skibo Castle, Dornoch, .
VI. On the New and Rare Conifer at Penrhyn Castle, North Wales.
on ~ oo
With Illustrations. By Aneus D. WessTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, North Wales,
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1884,
ScorrisH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1854-1884, .
APPENDIX “Gs
. Former Presidents,
. List of Members, corrected to July 1885,
. Subjects offered for Competition during 1884-85, . Office-Bearers for 1884-85,
. Abstract of the Accounts of the Scottish Arboricultural Society for
year 1883-84,
PAGE
29
36
49
55
68 114
24
26
rr
-
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY,
I. Address delivered at the Thirty-first Annual Meeting. By Hucu Cuiecuorn of Stravithie, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E.
GENTLEMEN,—I find myself called upon, at a time of unusual pressure, to say a few words to my old friends at their annual meeting. I rejoice to see many known faces, and to find so many fresh recruits joining our ranks, and distinguished strangers appearing amongst us this day. Being aware that a large pro- portion of the country members are anxious to adjourn to the Forestry Exhibition, I shall compress my remarks to the shortest possible length.
It is becoming that I should first notice the absence of our dear lamented friend and ex-President, Hmeritus Professor Balfour, who so often welcomed us to this class-room, and whose venerable countenance was never absent from our annual gatherings. He spent a long, laborious, and useful life in this city, and has been called to rest with his fathers.
When we met last year, we were looking forward to the proba- bility of the Forestry Exhibition taking place, and I have to con- gratulate you on the fulfilment of the project. The Marquis of Lothian, our late President, in his address at the opening of the Exhibition, gracefully alluded to our Society when he gave it the credit of having first proposed the Exhibition. We are, of course, deeply interested in the results that may flow from this great under- taking ; these are still in the future, but we know that the pro- gress of our work is being keenly watched by all who have the least acquaintance with Forestry in this as well as in other lands,
Such an Exhibition as this has of necessity engrossed the VOL, XI., PART I. A
bo
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884.
energies of many, and not a few of our members have been fully occupied in preparing and maturing plans for it ; and I myself must crave your indulgence on this head.
The ground on which the Exhibition Galleries are erected is about 5 acres in extent. The main building is 650 feet long by 55 feet broad, with three transepts, each 150 feet long by 55 feet broad, with a high central dome in each transept. The design of the build- ings is similar to the main galleries in the Health Exhibition, Ken- sington. Additional annexes, 500 feet long and 25 feet broad, similar in design to the main buildings, were erected at a later stage in consequence of the large demands for space by the Japanese Government and others; the exhibiting area thus be- came one-third larger than originally planned. The building is entirely of wood, and is of a handsome light design, which produces a very agreeable effect on entrance, and is generally admired.*
The electric railway runs along one side of the building, and is about 650 yards in length. On the west side of Donaldson’s Hospital grounds a field about 7 acres in extent was inclosed for the purpose of exhibiting wood-working machinery in motion, nursery- men’s exhibits, greenhouses, iron houses, wire fencing, gates, and articles of a like nature. Here will also be found various chalets, including one constructed entirely of Scots fir from Balmoral, and another of the Californian redwood ; also the Manitoba Settler’s Farm, and many varieties of models of gates and fences, with fencing materials and implements, exhibited by the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests, all having a connection with the wide subject of forestry.
It is to be regretted that some countries, particularly France, Germany, and the United States, which yield a large amount of timber and forest produce, did not respond to the circular invita- tion of the Executive Committee, France at the time was much occupied with troubles in China and Madagascar; and other Governments, such as Persia, Chili, Venezuela, and Honduras, were prevented by various causes from sending contributions. Where direct participation, in so far as exhibits are concerned, has been impossible, official maps and publications bearing on the forest service or literature of the country have been forwarded, or a representative has been commissioned officially to attend, or the
* Sce Plan of the Buildings and Grounds ; and also Plates I. to ITV. Plate
J.—Front View of the Exhibition Building: Plates II., III., and 1V.— Views illustrating the sections of the Scottish Arboricultural Society’s Court.
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. 5
efforts of private individuals have been exerted to supply the omission. The Exhibition has thus been inaugurated by the co-operation of many of the foreign and colonial Governments, and by the good wishes of all.
In the arrangement of the articles exhibited, the geographical principle has been adopted, the goods of each country being placed together. It was determined to arrange the space in courts, with the hard objects in the centre, and the soft goods and illustrations requiring vertical space on the walls and sides.
A scientific arrangement was very desirable, and the “ Classifi- cation” issued by the Executive Committee was carefully pre- pared with that intention, but it was found impossible, owing to various causes, to arrange the Catalogue in accordance with it— (1.) from the imperfect details given in many of the schedules of exhibitors ; (2.) the tardy arrival of the consignments; (3.) the time allowed was too short ; and (4.) the objections of Commis- sioners of countries occupying small space to allow their contri- butions to be divided. Great latitude has been allowed in the admission of goods, which have been largely received during the month since the opening ; and the very large and interesting col- lection from Japan has been scarcely three weeks in its place.
The Catalogue (Ist edit., lst July) contains much valuable in- formation, especially the portion relating to India and the Scottish Arboricultural Society. A second edition was published on 21st July, with running numbers and an index, to assist the Jurors in their labours, but it is not yet complete with respect to several colonies and foreign Governments ;* the list from Japan, it is hoped, may yet be printed, being very valuable.
The Scottish Arboricultural Society has in its court about 150 exhibits, and about 20 outside, making a total of about 170, the arrangement of which reflects great credit on our Secretary, Mr M‘Laren, who spent his annual holiday in our service, and has been constant in his attendance. Other members have also rendered valuable help. Our Scottish foresters have come for- ward from almost every district of Scotland, with the enthusiasm we expected, and when the Jurors’ awards are made public, the value of their contributions will be fully recognised. The result is most gratifying, and shows their efforts to raise the position of Forestry to the highest standard in this country.
* Catalogues of the Exhibits of India, British Guiana, the Cape of Good Hope, and Ceylon, were printed by the Commissioners of these countries.
4 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884.
Inp1A.—The Indian collection occupies the south central tran- sept, and several bays on each side ; it is very large and interesting, occupying an area of 5000 square feet; the Catalogue has a histori- cal preface by Sir George Birdwood, describing the first beginning of Forestry in India. The arrangement of the collection is admir- able,—the Commissioner, Colonel Michael, and his assistant, Mr Cole, having had previous experience in the Paris, Vienna, and Amsterdam Exhibitions. A special Report will be published.
The Index Collection of Timbers sent by the Government of India comprises 800 specimens, with their habitats and commercial uses, and illustrates arboreal vegetation from Tibet to Cape Comorin ; each specimen is carefully labelled and branded with a correspond- ing number referring to Gamble’s “‘ Manual of Indian Timbers.”
In the Indian Court may be specially noticed the very valuable series of maps and diagrams executed by the Forest Survey De- partment under Major Bailey, R.E., who himself arranged them in an instructive manner. The excellence of these topographical surveys can scarcely be overrated in connection with the demareca- tion and management of the reserved forests divided into blocks or compartments, and in the case of boundary disputes their value is undeniable. For students of forestry this is a most important feature of the Exhibition, and shows the silent progress of the great work which has been carried on by Dr Brandis and others during the past twenty-five years.
Another country which exhibits maps showing in detail the general distribution of forests, is DrNMARK. There are three sheets displaying the occurrence of the forests of conifers and of broad-leaved trees, also the extent of newly-planted areas and the geological formations on which they grow. There are also maps of the forest district of Kronborg, which resemble those made in Germany, and are very neatly executed.
Othar Holnboe, custom-house surveyor, Christiania, furnishes a map representing the principal woods of Norway, and the export of forest produce from the different parts of the country to Britain and other countries. Robert Bell, LL.D., Assistant-Director Geological Survey of Canada, exhibits a large map showing the distribution of the forest trees of Canada.
The Government of Japan displays a chart illustrating the natural distribution of forest trees in Japan, and marking certain zones, each indicated by a particular tree, which forms a prominent
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 9, 1884. 5
feature in the landscape. The extent of these zones is marked in colours on the map. There are also excellent coloured drawings, representing the habit of these fine trees, and their foliage, flower, and fruit in life-size.
It would have been very desirable that similar illustrative maps had been furnished, as far as possible by various Govern- ments, to assist in determining the rates of growth of valuable trees in different countries. For instance, in the Danish collection some of the diagrams give the mean height from 20 to 120 years, and show that in Germany the height of beech and spruce is greater than in Denmark; but the average diameter of the latter exceeds that of the former.
Japan.—The Japanese Court occupies the eastern transept, and forms one of the largest and most important sections. The arrange- ments by the Commissioners (whom we have the honour of seeing amongst us to-day) have been carried out in a most thorough and businesslike manner. They knew beforehand the exact amount of space their goods would occupy, and worked with a rapidity and skill which might put to shame the most advanced nations. The Japanese collection was catalogued before it was despatched, and the arrangement corresponds with the running numbers, and is most creditable. Mr Takei, the head Commissioner, has shown himself possessed of great business capacity, as well as being an expert in the science of Forestry.
The importance of Forestry to the welfare of Great Britain and its Colonies has only been recently recognised by us, but in Japan it has long formed an important feature of national education.
The sections of woods, numbering about 270, are placed on the central table, with botanical specimens and illustrations above, and manuscript notes below, containing the Japanese and botani- cal names, with the habitats and economical uses, the comparative rarity or abundance of the tree, the average height at 50 years and at maturity. Each section, drawing, and description is marked with a corresponding number.
Numerous models and drawings illustrate the expedients adopted for felling trees, slipping and floating the logs down narrow gorges or deep chasm rivers, and the booms for catching and collecting timber when the rivers debouche on the plains, and where timber depots are formed. Illustrations are also given of the method of preventing soil from slipping away from the sides of mountains, and the method of introducing sand-binding plants. The draw-
6 ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884.
ings are mounted in wooden frames, and tastefully decorated with fragments of veneer of different colours. The models and illustra- tions must prove exceedingly instructive to students of forestry.
The numerous Collections of Woods exhibited by different countries naturally come under the head of Forestry, but when dealt with by the juries of the different classes, have to be con- sidered in reference to particular qualification for special purposes.
Woops or Construction are of three kinds, for Civil, Naval, and Ordnance purposes, and their value is affected by such material qualities as Strength, Toughness, Weight, Durability, and Elasticity.
Of woods adapted for purposes of construction, the principal collections in the Exhibition are from New Brunswick, Norway, Denmark, India, Ceylon, Andamans, Johor, British Guiana, and Japan. Many of the timbers, as in New Brunswick, Norway, Denmark, India, and Ceylon, are well known and commonly used, but in looking over the catalogues received from South Africa, Sierra Leone, Johor, and Japan, we often find only the native names and short descriptions of woods used and valued in the countries to which they belong, but in many cases quite un- known in Britain, and of the comparative merits of which the natives themselves are frequently ignorant.
It is true that much has been done by the numerous national exhibitions to extend technical knowledge; and especially the botanical identification of those plants yielding forest produce has been greatly advanced at Kew ; while important experiments on the strength and resistance of various woods have been carried out by Dr Brandis * in Calcutta (1864), and by the late Captain Fowke ¢ in London. But it is evident that in some parts of the world much still remains to be done, and the vast collections now brought together will afford opportunities of placing specimens in comparison with each other and with the ordinary woods used in trade and construction.
There is a great deal of value to the country in this Exhibition, not only to landed proprietors, foresters, architects, and engineers, but also to joiners, upholsterers, and cabinetmakers. It appears to me that it would be of great importance in an industrial point of view to educate the eye and mind of the artisans in our large towns by showing and explaining the principal objects here ex- hibited. Organisations might be formed in
say Glasgow, Dundee,
* Gamble’s Manual of Indian Timbers, 1881. + Report on Paris Exhibition, 1856.
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884. rG
Aberdeen, and other places, to arrange for large parties coming for one or two days. I am often surprised by the questions put to me by intelligent workmen visiting the building, who are evi- dently seeking information, and it is my belief that much useful knowledge may be communicated to all classes of the people.
There is little doubt that the present Exhibition will give an impetus to a more systematic forest education both in Scotland and elsewhere. Improved tools, instruments, working plans, valuation surveys, and the like, will be introduced. In these days our foresters must take care that our Continental neighbours do not outstrip them in the march of improvement and in general details relating to production of timber, economy of management, and despatch of business. In some European countries the edu- cation and training of foresters is of a highly scientific character, and the whole wooded area has been managed for centuries with systematic care and skill.
The authorities of the India Office have decided, after much con- sideration, to discontinue the system of training on the Continent our young men for Forest service, and henceforth the resources within our own borders will be utilised for the education of Forest candidates. The Royal Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines, is the place selected in the first instance, where a thoroughly good teaching staff already exists; and the proximity of the Royal Gardens at Kew will be of great advantage to the students.
As the Marquis of Lothian well remarked at the opening, we have in Edinburgh many concurrent advantages—the University, the Botanical Gardens, the Arboretum, and the Highland Society. Oue thing only is needed in addition—a tract of forest reserved for systematic management and professional instruction.
There will be a great mass of valuable material at the close of the Exhibition which should be utilised in Edinburgh for purposes of instruction ; and our long desired hope for a Forest School may be one result of this movement. In this way the recom- mendation of the French Professors of Forestry, who visited Britain two years ago, would be carried out ; and as a result of the International Exhibition, we should have the establishment of a Forest School in Edinburgh,
Before leaving this subject, I desire to allude to the presence among us this day of several Indian Forest officers,* three of whom have been students at the Ecole Forestitre, Nancy. And Iam sure
* Messrs Shuttleworth, Fry, Fuchs, and Wroughton.
oe)
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, AUGUST 5, 1884.
that in this case, as in so many others, further acquaintance has only heightened esteem. They have ungrudgingly given their aid as jurors at the Exhibition ; and I have been delighted to observe the continuous and fraternal co-operation of Scotland and India.
The work of the juries is nearly completed, and the awards will be known in a few days. Such names as Sir J. D. Hooker, Dr Lyons, M.P., Colonel Moncrieff, R.A., Professors Wilson, Fraser, Cossar Ewart, and Dickson of Edinburgh, Bayley Balfour of Oxford, Professor Archer, Industrial Museum, Professor M‘Nab of Dublin, Trail of Aberdeen, M‘Intosh of St Andrews, and a corresponding number of our best and most honoured members,— this selection and combination, effected with great care, will give a judgment based upon technical knowledge, commanding the confidence of the public.
The Executive Committee have arranged for a course of lectures during August and September ; and several distinguished pro- fessors and experts have kindly consented to enlighten us on various interesting topics. Dr Lyons, M.P., has already addressed us “On Forestry in Europe and America,” and Professor M‘Nab “*On a Piece of Wood and its Teaching ;” while further instruc- tion awaits us from Mr Jack, on “The Forest Resources of New Brunswick ;” Professor M‘Intosh, on “‘Timber-boring Mollusca ;” Major Bailey, R.E., on ‘‘ Forest Surveys in India;” Dr Howitz of Copenhagen, on ‘‘ Eucalypts at Home and Abroad ;” Mr Mel- drum, on ‘The Forests of Johor ;” Dr Croumbie Brown, on “The Aridity of Spain ;” and Mr Baty, on “‘ The Management of Plantations in Cumberland.”
In conclusion, it may not be out of place to allude to the import- ance of many of the books and pamphlets on Arboriculture received in connection with the Exhibition. Britain has sent 38 vols., including 12 works on Forest Science from the fertile brain of Dr J. Croumbie Brown ; Jndia, 2; Singapore, 1; British Guiana, 1; South Australia, 6; United States, 13; Denmark, 24; Norway and Sweden, 2; Germany, 20; France, 13; Italy, 8—Total, 129 books and pamphlets.
When the Exhibition is over, by request of the authors, the more valuable of these works will be transferred to our library, and they will form a most acceptable addition to our store of Forest literature.
Amongst many notices of the Exhibition a series of articles in the Gardeners’ Chronicle, detailing the general contents of the several courts, is in course of publication.
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 9
Il. The Woods of New Brunswick: Being a Description of the Trees of the Province available for economic purposes, prepared by order of the Hon. James Mitchell, Surveyor-General of New Brunswick, for use at the International Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh in 1884. By L. W. Battery, Ph.D., Professor of Natural History in the University of New Brunswick ; and Epwarp Jack, C.E., Surveyor of Crown Lands,
Newfoundland and the Maritime Provinces of Canada are, of all new colonies, the nearest to Great Britain. The extensive tracts of barren land which the first contains, and the habits of its inhabitants which are those of fishermen, forbid the expectation of a large timber yield from it. New Brunswick, however, which has in its interior a vast extent of fertile land covered by virgin forests, consisting largely of birch, maple, beech, and other hard woods of large size and excellent quality, stands ready to furnish these in any desired quantity or form (as well as soft woods of different kinds) so soon as the necessities of British commerce and manufactures demand it.
Tue Prine AND Fir Trise (Abietine).
The representatives of this tribe in New Brunswick are—(1.) The White Pine; (2.) The Red or Norway Pine; (3.) The Grey or Northern Scrub Pine; (4.) The Hemlock Spruce; (5.) The White or Single Spruce; (6.) The Black or Double Spruce ; (7.) The Balsam Fir; and (8.) The American Larch, Tamarack, or Hackmatac,
1, THE WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus, L.).
The white pine is one of the largest, tallest, and most stately trees in the New Brunswick forest, often rising in a single straight but tapering column to a height of 80 feet or more, in rare in- stances to over 120 feet.
The several varieties, distinguished locally as “ Pumpkin Pine,” “Sapling Pine,” and “ Bull Sapling,” owe their origin to a slight difference in the colour, texture, and specific gravity of the wood, dependent upon corresponding differences in the condition of their growth. The first named is found most thickly near the shores of streams, or on hill sides fronting lakes or streams, seldom
10 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
extending in any quantity further than half or three-quarters of a mile from water,
When found in the forest distant from streams or lakes, the pumpkin pine as well as the bull sapling occur in small groups, or in pairs or solitary, a considerable distance often intervening between groups or individuals. Sometimes a single tree may be seen towering to the extreme height of its species on some rocky and elevated hill, in places so difficult of access that the lumber- men, after felling them, either float them from their place of growth to where they can be more conveniently managed, or remove them with the aid of ropes and blocks, with or without the assistance of horses and sleds. The soundest and _ best pumpkin and bull sapling pines are found scattered on high land, and frequently surrounded by hardwoods. Such as grow in low and swampy land are very subject to shakes and concave knots. These varieties of large size have become so scarce in the Province of New Brunswick, that the lumbermen often cut roads half a mile or more in length to reach a choice tree. Nearly all are found on the dry and sandy soil of the coal measures, covering the low ridges, and surrounding the heaths and bogs which abound on the surface of this formation.
The great fire of Miramichi, in the year 1825, and the Saxby gale a few years ago, have done millions of dollars damage to the pine lands of New Brunswick, and the day is not very distant when pine trees of good size will be obtained with difficulty in the Province.
This valuable wood is used for so many purposes, that an enumeration of them would be almost impossible. Among its more uncommon uses may be named that by the moulder for patternmaking ; it is very applicable for any purpose which re-
o> quires a wood easily worked and durable.
2, THE RED PINE (Pinus resinosa, Ait.).
‘The Red (or Norway) * pine has an erect trunk, taller and more slender than that of the pitch pine, which it most nearly re- sembles. The bark, which is much less rough, is in rather broad scales of a reddish colour, The long leaves are in twos, and the cones are free from the bristling, rigid, sharp points which dis- tinguish those of the pitch pine. It may also be distinguished at
* « Wrongly called Norway Pine” (Asa Gray).
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. ll
a distance by the greater size and length of the terminal brushes of leaves.” —Hmerson,
Lumbermen are acquainted with two varieties, which they denominate by the names of the Sapling and Old Red Pine. The former is an inferior wood, generally having those niches of sap which rot quickly on exposure to the weather, It has been largely used in the State of Maine for hogshead heading, for which purpose it answers well. The old red pine, now nearly extinct here, sometimes attains the height of 90 feet and a diameter of 3 feet, the trunk being nearly uniform and without branches for a height of 40 or 50 feet. The wood is strong and durable, resembling that of pitch pine, but with less resin, and was formerly largely employed, like the latter, for the decking of vessels and for beams, having a fine compact grain with few knots. It grows as a scattered tree on dry and sandy soil; some of the best trees ever obtained in the Province were cut on the granite boulder district which crosses the New Brunswick railway about fifty miles north of St Andrews. The Tobique river traversed a tract which was once a great habitat of the old red pine, especially that branch called the Wapskyhegan, on whose banks it grew abundantly, and the trees stood so close on the ground that there was hardly room to turn a sled between the stumps. The axe and fire have now, however, completely removed them from this locality.
3. GREY OR NORTHERN SCRUB PINE (Pinus Banksiana, Lamb).
This tree is readily distinguished from the other species of pine by its scrubby growth, and by the colour and appearance of the peculiar scales by which the trunk is covered, and by its singularly spreading boughs, as well as by the cones which hang under them. Timber made from it in former times, when it was tolerably abundant, was considered to be of good size if it averaged three-quarters of a ton to the tree. The wood is hard, full of pitch, and free from sap, but it is apt to be full of streaks. It is much used by the Intercolonial railway for ties and railway sleepers, being one of the best woods for this purpose.
Certain sections of country on the South-West Miramichi, the forests on which were destroyed by the great fire of 1825, have since become so thickly covered by forests of Banks’ pine that it is almost impossible to press one’s way through the trees. It grows also extensively on the Little South-West Miramichi.
1 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
4, THE HEMLOCK SPRUCE (Abies Canadensis, Mich.).
The hemlock spruce, or hemlock as it is often more simply termed, is one of the most abundant of our evergreen trees, being found on almost every soil. It is when in perfection a very beautiful tree, but is apt, as age advances, owing to the death or breaking off of the lower limbs, to assume the appearance of pre- mature decay. Under favourable circumstances it reaches a height of 70 or 80 feet and a circumference of 6 to 9 feet, the latter, as in others of the family, being nearly uniform until the branches are reached. There are two varieties known to woods- men, the Sapling or White Hemlock, and the rough bark or Black Hemlock. The latter, owing probably to its large and heavy top, is very subject to shakes, rendering the boards sawn from the lower log nearly worthless. The wood of the sapling or white hemlock, with the exception of a small piece near the butt, is sound and firm, and lasts well. It is of more frequent occurrence in the southern or middle districts of New Brunswick than in the north, being a rare tree north of the Grand Falls of the St John. It occurs in belts and masses in certain localities, the laws regulating its place of growth not being understood. It is very subject to the action of fire, and disappears rapidly from the neighbourhood of settlements. It was formerly abundant on the lower portion of the Nashwaak, while it is rarely found above the Narrows, forty miles from the mouth. It is abundant on the Intercolonial railroad north of Moncton,
A wide belt of hemlock crosses the St John river on the granite formation forty miles above Fredericton, and the wood is especially good, owing, perhaps, to the presence of potash from the decom- position of the felspar contained in the granite, by the action of time, frost, and moisture. It is found in large quantities and of good quality on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company south of the Becaguinne river, growing on the red soil of the Lower Carboniferous formation. This wood has been used hitherto for framing and boarding in buildings, and for fencing ; it is now employed to a limited extent for interior finish- ing of houses, and is better than black spruce for many purposes : it does not warp or shrink more, or indeed probably so much, as good white pine; it requires a longer time for seasoning than either pine or spruce ; it holds nails well; and much of it has a fine grain, and takes an excellent polish. It is very durable
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 13
when not exposed to alternations of drought and moisture, and is said to be impervious to the attacks of rats, and therefore used in the construction of granaries. Were its good qualities better known, its use would be more general.
5, THE WHITE OR SINGLE SPRUCE (Abies alba, Michaux).
This tree is larger and more slender than the black spruce, being distinguished by the lighter colour of its bark and leaves, On the Restigouche, Upper St John, and many other places, it grows toa great height with little taper. Mr J. A. M‘Callum, Deputy Surveyor, in 1873, had a tree cut down on the former stream above the Quatamkedguick, which made a log measuring 14 inches at the butt, 10 inches at the top, and was 64 feet long. They have been cut 80 feet long, measuring 25 inches in diameter at the butt, and 18 inches at the top.
White spruce is found in valleys, growing to a very large size, skirting streams, and in small clumps on the sides and tops of hills. The yield of white spruce land will not compare with that of black, as the former tree is much more scattered in its growth. The wood is white and soft, and generally free from knots. Its specific gravity is less than that of the black spruce, to which it is inferior in strength, and exhibits less elasticity. The spruce deals shipped from the Nepisiguit and Restigouche rivers are nearly all manufactured from this tree.
6. THE BLACK OR DOUBLE SPRUCE (Abies nigra, Michaux).
As an article of export, this is the most valuable tree of New Brunswick. The vast forests of black spruce which once covered the Province have been reduced by fire and cutting to less than one-third of their original extent. This tree was found in greatest abundance in the southern part of New Brunswick. A _ line drawn from the first Eel River Lake, extending north-east to the dividing ridge between the Little South-West Miramichi and the Nepisiguit, is about the boundary of the great black spruce lands of the Province. South of this line vast forests of it ex- tended from the Schoodic, crossing the Nashwaak and South-West Miramichi, thence to the north-west branch of the last-named river, where it ended. North of this line the tree growth is generally hardwood, largely mingled with firs. Such spruce as occurs along the shores of streams or scattered on the hill sides is principally of the white variety.
4 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
Black spruce is commonly found in thick masses around Jakes, or about the base and sides of ridges whose summits are covered by hardwoods, the spruce thinning as the elevation increases, Like the white pine, it attains its greatest size and altitude when growing among surrounding hardwoods. During the past seven years vast quantities of this tree have died, either from the effects of disease, or from the attack of an insect, which eats its way between the sap and the bark; the wneut forests have suffered most. The distinguishing properties of the wood are strength, lightness, and elasticity. That found on the shores of the Bay of Fundy is remarkable for its toughness and durability, and is thought to be nearly equal to Hackmatac for shipbuilding. It furnishes as fine yards and topmasts as any in the world, and has been long and extensively used for this purpose.
Heretofore the smaller trees have been largely exported from the head of the Bay of Fundy in round logs, to be used as piles for wharf-building. |The principal root and the lower part of the trunk are extensively used for shipbuilding, constituting knees and foot-hooks; and by means of the small fibrous roots the Indians of Maine and New Brunswick sew together pieces of birch bark to form the exterior covering of their canoes.
Very superior clap-boards are made from the clean butts of these trees, because the wood has straight seams from the butt almost to the branches. In many localities black spruces are very seamy. This occurs sometimes on the low lands, but oftener on the ridges, and is probably caused by the joint effect of wind and frost. A cheap variety of shingles is obtained from small trees. Their value, however, to New Brunswick arises from their furnishing the major part of the deals and battens which are ex- ported to Great Britain and other countries. The manufacture of spruce deals commenced in 1819, and has been steadily increasing.
7. THE BALSAM FIR (Abies balsamea, Marshall).
This tree, also known as the Fir Balsam or Silver Fir, is common in New Brunswick, being found in nearly all localities, but in the greatest abundance and in the most compact bodies on the head waters of the St John, Restigouche, and Miramichi rivers. There is an extensive forest between the heads of the Miramichi and Tobique rivers. It grows here very thickly, and some acres have 10,000 or 12,000 feet to the acre upon them (superficial measure). The wood is apt to be defective, but in
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 15 this locality it is better. Mr Braithwaite, a well-known New Brunswick woodsman, says that the first 10 to 20 feet of the firs growing here are generally free from knots; his attention was drawn to their soundness when cutting into them for hunting or camping purposes.
The wood is rich in resin, or rather in turpentine, which is contained in small vesicles or tumours covering the trunk and limbs. This is usually known by the name of Canada balsam, and is employed in medicine for pulmonary complaints, and in art for the manufacture of varnish.
This fir is a lasting wood, and seasons readily. It is easily worked, and is used in the manufacture of butter firkins and other wooden vessels for holding food, as it imparts no flavour. It can be used for flooring, interior doors, slats for Venetian blinds, etc., etc. ; the Indians prefer it to cedar for lining their canoes, as it does not absorb water.
8. THE AMERICAN LARCH, TAMARACK, OR HACKMATAC. | (Larix Americana, Michaux.)
The American or black larch, called by the French Canadians Epinette Rouge, by the descendants of the Dutch, the Tamarack, and among the English, commonly by its Indian name of Hack- matac, is one of the most valuable trees of the New Brunswick forest. Its favourite place of growth and where it usually attains its greatest size, is on or near the banks of some sluggish brook, growing specially well among that variety of wild grass known as “blue joint.” It generally surrounds the barren boggy heaths which abound in the middle section of New Brunswick ; those trees growing on the bogs being stunted and small, while those on the edges of the heath attain a large size, and frequently afford good roots for shipbuilding purposes. The roots of those found on intervale land are, however, generally sounder and larger, though the trees are not so abundant. Many of the finest and largest Tamaracks have been found growing out of old beaver dams, and these industrious animals may claim the honour of having prepared the soil for their growth.
Where this tree has not a moist soil, its growth is very scanty and small, It is capable of ready propagation. By the artificial planting of the tree, a period of seventy years would yield timber fit for all the ordinary purposes of shipbuilding.
The wood of the larch, which is very resinous and compact, is
16 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
remarkably durable, It has been said to be more lasting in ships’ timbers than oak, There are two varieties known among woods- men, the white and the yellow, the former being much inferior to the latter in strength and durability.
Tamarack is largely used in shipbuilding for timbers, knees, beams, etc., but large roots and timber have become scarce, and cannot be obtained unless at considerable expense.
In the County of Aroostook, in the State of Maine, trees of Hackmatac have been obtained from which have been made four tons of timber,
Lumbermen remark, that in almost every place where you find a very large Tamarack, apparently growing alone, by searching a few rods on either side you will find a companion of nearly similar proportions. Hackmatac planks are well adapted for floor boards and door steps, from their extreme hardness, and an infusion of the boughs and bark furnishes a good alterative for horses.
THe Cypress TRIBE (Cupressina).
The only representatives in New Brunswick of this section, marked by having a globular or ovoid Strobilus, instead of a true cone for fruit, are the American Arbor Vite, the Red Cedar, and the Juniper.
Tue AmerIcAN Arbor Vitam (Thuya occidentalis, L.).
This tree, often but improperly called the White Cedar, is abundant in New Brunswick. It is met with everywhere in low grounds and swales, but especially where the soil is clayey and the drainage imperfect. The largest and best trees occur inter- mingled with hardwood. They grow thickest in what are called cedar swamps, forming for short distances dense forests well nigh impenetrable. When growing thickly together the wood is generally very defective and the diameter comparatively small, rarely exceeding 1 to 2 feet.
On the dry limestone hills near St John, this species forms dense thickets of beautifully pyramidal trees. It is found in greatest abundance, as well as of the best quality, on the Resti- gouchbe river and on the upper St John. Mr J. A. M‘Callum, when surveying the dividing line between the counties of Victoria and Madawaska, on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company, observed thousands of white cedars which were
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 17
3 feet and upwards in diameter, and extended for many miles. When on the head of the Restigouche he also noticed great quantities of excellent cedar.
On the north of Tobique and on Salmon river, on the above- named company’s grants, are vast tracts of hardwood, intermingled with the finest of cedar. The Crown lands on the Nictaux branch of Tobique, for many miles, are also lined with clean and straight trees of this species well adapted to the manufacture of cedar shingles or railway ties. As this stream is remarkably smooth, the trees can be conveyed by water, very cheaply, to railway communication. The Honourable Senator Ferguson, of Bathurst, says that the white cedar is much used in the eastern part of the county of Gloucester for building boats, that boards can be got from 6 to 9 inches wide for planking, and that the roots make excellent knee timbers, as they are both light and durable.
The wood of the white cedar is very soft, light and fine grained, of a reddish tint, and, like its twigs, possessed of an agreeable aromatic odour. It is readily wrought, and is also very durable, being especially adapted for fencing, and for such other purposes as necessitate frequent alternations of dryness and moisture. There is a large export of cedar shingles and railway ties from the City of Fredericton. Chests made from this wood are said to have the property of preserving furs and woollen goods from the attacks of moths, which is, probably, owing to its aromatic odour. The bark of this tree is now used in the United States for the manufacture of coarse paper for carpet lining, sheathing, ete.
Linpen Famity (Tihacee). BASS-WOOD, OR LIME TREE (Zilia Americana, 1.).
Though rare, there are few more striking trees in the New Brunswick woods than the Bass-wood, or American Linden. With a tall straight and somewhat columnar trunk, sometimes as much as 80 feet in height, branching freely, and densely clothed with rich green foliage, diversified in the season by its abundant yellowish-green flowers, or nut-like fruit, it can hardly fail to attract attention; and as an ornamental tree, it is well worthy of cultivation. Its wood is also of considerable value, being soft, white, and of a fine close grain. It is very tough and pliable, and being less liable than other woods to split from
extremes of temperature, is used, in preference to all others, for VOL. XI., PART I. B
18 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK,
making curved fronts of sleighs, panels of carriages, ete. For similar reasons it is used by stair-builders for curved ends of stairs, and for interior finishing. It is readily carved and turned, and has sometimes been employed for the figure-heads of vessels. Its inner bark, or liber, is tough and fibrous, and is well adapted for the manufacture of rough ropes and cordage, It occurs sparingly on the fertile lands of the Upper St John river.
THe Soap-Berry Famiry (Sapindacee).
The representatives of this family in New Brunswick belong to two sub-orders, of which the first (Sapindacee proper) is represented by the introduced Horse-chestnut, much prized as an ornamental tree ; and the second (Acerinew) by the different species of Maple. The latter only require notice here.
WHITE OR SILVER MAPLE (Acer dasycarpum, Ehr.).
This is a somewhat smaller tree than the Rock Maple, and less generally distributed, being apparently wanting in the northern counties, and elsewhere confined to the borders of streams. It is not uncommon among the creeks and islands of the St John river, and is often of considerable size and beauty. It yields a soft white wood, fine grained and easily worked, but with little strength or durability. It is rarely used, except in the manufac- ture of agricultural implements.
RED OR SWAMP MAPLE (Acer rubrum, L.).
This tree is, among the maples, second only to the rock maple in size and in the value of its wood. Though not strictly confined to swamps, it flourishes best in low wooded swales, and where there is abundant moisture ; attaining, sometimes, under these circumstances, a height of 60 or 70 feet. It has been observed in all parts of the Province, being readily recognised in spring, from the reddish or crimson colour of its recent shoots, and in autumn from the intense brilliancy of its variegated foliage.
“The wood of the red maple is whitish, with a tint of rose- colour, of a fine and close grain, compact, firm and smooth, the silver grain lying in layers very narrow and close, and the pores being very small. It is well suited for turning, and takes a fine polish ; is easily wrought; and serves for a great variety of pur-
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 19
poses. It is much used for common bedsteads, tables, chairs, bureaus, and other cheap furniture. In building it is an excellent material for flooring, and may be used for any part not exposed to dampness. It lasts well in the flat of a ship’s floor, and has sufficient elasticity to serve as oars, which are almost equal to those of white ash ” (Emerson’s Report, p. 486).
There is a considerable quantity of this wood growing on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company on the St John river. It occurs on the edge of low land, but does not grow thickly in any place.
ROCK OR SUGAR MAPLE (Acer saccharinum, L.).
This is the largest and finest of the maples, and is the most valuable in its economic applications. Though varying greatly in aspect according to the special conditions under which it has grown, it is in all cases a remarkable and sometimes even a majestic tree, beautiful alike for form and foliage, the contour of the leaf being remarkably graceful. It is partial to rich, deep, and gravelly loams, and, except directly along the seaboard, is a very common upland tree throughout the Province. Its ordinary height is 50 or 60 feet, though rising sometimes to 70 or 80 feet.
Tt is of rapid growth and capable of ready cultivation, but when in open ground and unprotected is rather easily overthrown and subject to somewhat premature decay. ‘‘ For purposes of art,” says Emerson, “no native wood possesses more beauty, or a greater variety of appearance than that of the rock maple. It is hard, close-grained, smooth, and compact, and capable of taking and retaining an exquisite polish. The straight-grained or common variety has a resemblance to satin wood, but is of a deeper colour. The variety called curled hard maple, caused by the sinuous course of the fibres, gives a changeable surface of alternate light and shade, exhibiting an agreeable and striking play of colours. But the most remarkable variety is the Bird’s-eye Maple. This is so called from a contortion of the fibres at irregular intervals, throwing out a variable point of light, and giving an appearance of a roundish projection rising from within a slight cavity, and bearing a distant resemblance to the eye of a bird. All the varieties, particularly the last, are used in the manufacture of articles of furniture—wardrobes, chairs, bedsteads, bureaus, port- able desks, frames of pictures, etc, The straight-grained variety
20, THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK,
is much used in the manufacture of buckets and tubs, and is preferable to every other wood for the making of lasts. In naval architecture the rock maple furnishes the best material, next to white oak, for the keel.”
Rock maple grows in abundance on the St John river and its tributaries ; it is found in greatest quantities from between Fredericton and Woodstock to the northern boundary-line of the Province. In the district north of the Tobique, for more than forty miles in a straight line, the explorer can travel through extremely fertile lands, the growth on which is largely composed of this tree, without meeting the habitation of man. A large quantity of sugar and some molasses or treacle are yearly made in the months of March and April, from the maple sap, which is received in troughs, holes having been bored or cut in the trunks of the trees to which a small spout is attached. The liquid is boiled down in large iron pots to the required thickness, and then sugared off. An agreeable candy is made by suddenly pouring the sap, when boiled to the proper consistency, on snow. This candy can be made in summer from the sugar by boiling it down with a little water, and using ice instead of snow as a means of sudden cooling.
The French of the county of Madawaska are the largest manu- facturers of this sugar, and there is little other used in that county. In the bright warm April days the careful observer may frequently notice the common squirrel hanging tenaciously to some maple twig, occasionally lifting his head to bark angrily at the intruder. Closer observation will reveal the fact that the noisy climber is regaling himself on the delicious sap which the approach of spring is sending from the root to the branches of the tree. Many of the Provincial railroads pass through or near extensive forests of this wood, but although small water-powers abound, no manufacturing establishments for the various purposes of commerce have as yet been erected.
An important application of maple wood, especially of Bird's-eye maple, in veneers, has recently been made in the internal decora- tion of railway carriages, for which it is admirably adapted. Although, like other maples, it is deficient in durability under exposure, it is very strong and remarkably cohesive. As fuel its value is unequalled by any other tree in New Brunswick, and very large quantities are annually consumed for this purpose.
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 21
Outve Fameiy (Oleacee).
The representatives of this family in New Brunswick belong to the genus Fraxinus or ash, of which there are four species.
WHITE ASH (fraxinus Americana, L.).
This, from its large size, the most important of the ashes, is sparsely found in all parts of the Province, upon almost every variety of soil, though attaining its perfection only in rich loamy ground and in the vicinity of streams, where it obtains abundant moisture. Under favourable circumstances it rises to a height of 50 or 60 feet, with a straight undivided trunk for 30 feet, and a diameter of nearly 2 feet. It is usually scattered among other trees, rarely, if ever, forming groves.
The qualities from which ash wood derives its value are its strength, toughness, and elasticity. In consequence of these pro- perties it is extensively employed by carriage and sleigh makers, especially for shafts and springs ; in the manufacture of chair and sofa frames ; for agricultural implements, as pitchforks and rakes ; and for a variety of smaller articles. For the manufacture of oars it is preferred to all other woods.
THE RED ASH (Mraxinus pubescens, Walter).
This tree resembles the white ash, and grows in similar situa- tions ; it is probable that they are sometimes confounded. Besides being a smaller tree, the red ash is easily distinguished by the downy character of its leaves and newer branches, from which its specific name is derived. Its wood, though used for similar purposes, is less valuable. This tree is found to a limited extent east of the Grand Falls, in low fertile parts.
BLACK OR WATER ASH (fraxinus sambucifolia, Lam.).
This tree is mostly confined to swamps and the muddy banks of rivers. It is common along the shores of the St John and Kennebeccasis rivers, but is in greatest abundance on the branches of the St John above the Grand Falls, especially on those of the Grand and Green rivers, the shores of the former being fringed by it for many miles. It is also abundant on the Miramichi river on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company—the drier the land usually the better the wood.
The wood of the black ash is used for house and church finish-
22 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
ing, as well as in the manufacture of furniture. In order to polish it, the pores are filled with some substance, such as bees’ wax, to close the pores; after this it takes a high polish. It varies in quality with the ground on which it grows. The best ash used in Fredericton is brought from the county of Carleton ; there it attains a height of 40 feet or more, and a diameter of 2 feet. It comes into leaf very late in the season, and loses its foliage early. The wood of the black ash, though inferior to the white in strength and durability, is nevertheless remarkably tough, and, owing to the facility with which after pounding it may be separ- ated into strips and ribands, is especially preferred to other woods by the Indians for the manufacture of baskets, of which handsomely ornamented ones are made by the Tobique tribe.
Nertie Faminy (Urticacee).
Sus-orpER I.—Tue Exm Trise (Ulmacee). THE ELM (Ulmus Americana, L.).
Though comparatively restricted in its distribution, there are, nevertheless, few trees in New Brunswick which, when the proper conditions are accorded, exceed the elm in the length or vigour of its growth, certainly none which can compare with it for grace and beauty. On the uplands it is comparatively rare, and even when occurring seldom attains to great size, but in river valleys, and especially along the rich and level intervales * bordering the St John river and its tributaries, it is much more abundant and often large, its beautiful feathered trunks and plume-like branches serving greatly to enhance the beauty of the scenery. The stem occasionally girths 20 feet.
The wood of the elm is both strong and tough, and therefore well adapted for the making of ships’ blocks, hubs of carriage- wheels, and kindred uses, though said to be inferior for these purposes to the English elm. It is also used in making the flooring of ships’ decks, though difficult to work, the peculiarity of the grain requiring it to be planed crosswise rather than lengthwise. Its value in New Brunswick, however, is almost solely as an ornamental tree, quite equalling if not excelling in this respect its European relative. It is readily transplanted, hardy when in favourable situations, and of rapid growth.
* Holm in England ; Haugh in Scotland.
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 23
Watnout Famity (Juglandacee).
THE BUTTERNUT (Juglans cinerea, L.).
The Butternut is not an abundant tree in New Brunswick, being mostly confined to the southern counties and the valley of the St John river, especially above Woodstock, while it is absent from the coast, and also, according to Mr Fowler, from the northern counties of the Province. It is usually met with in rich moist lands, especially in calcareous districts, and some of these, such as Butternut Ridge, in King’s Co., have received their names from its former abundance in their vicinity. It is rarely found away from roads or settlements. Although never a tall tree, it thrives well under cultivation, and sometimes attains a height of 60 feet or more.
The wood of the butternut is adapted for numerous and various uses. Its rich reddish-yellow colour, darkening with age, and then nearly resembling the English oak, as well as its lightness, render it suitable for cabinet work, for which it is also well adapted by the facility with which it receives paint or varnish, and the fact that it is not readily split by nails. For a like reason it may be advantageously employed for carriage-making and similar uses, being both light and durable. It is well fitted for purposes of interior decoration, and has been employed with excellent effect, both in the Cathedral at Fredericton and in other churches through the Province.
Of minor uses, the employment of the bark and nut-shells in dyeing may be mentioned, as well as that of the young half-grown nuts for the making of pickles. The bark is also said to yield an extract possessed of laxative properties,
Oax Famity (Cupulifere).
The representatives of this family in the New Brunswick Sylva are (1.) The Red Oak (Quercus rubra, L.), the American Beech (Fagus ferruginea, Ait.), the Beaked Hazel-nut (Corylus rostrata, Ait.), the American Hornbeam (Carpinus Americana, Mich.), and the American Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya Virginica, Willd.), to which may be added, as introduced at a few points, the Spanish Chestnut (Castanea vesca, L.).
24 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
1. THE RED OAK (Quercus rubra, L.).
This, the only species of oak occurring in New Brunswick, is both common and widely distributed, being found in all parts of the Province, especially along the banks of streams, and, as in Charlotte Co., along ridges of slaty rocks. It is, however, a tree of inferior value, being difficult to season, imperfectly combustible, and, unlike other species of the same genus, worthless for the pur- poses of the tanner. It is, however, of rapid growth ; flourishes well in almost all situations; and, owing to the beauty of its trunk and foliage, is well adapted for ornamental purposes.
To the above may be added the occasional occurrence of the white and grey oak in special localities. They are, however, so rare as to require no special mention.
2. AMERICAN BEECH (/agus ferruginea, Ait.).
Three different kinds of Beech, viz., the Common Beech, the White Beech, and the Red Beech, are distinguished by lumberers and others. They are, however, probably all varieties of a single species—the White or American Beech, the differences depending, according to Emerson, simply upon the greater or less rapidity of maturation, and the consequent different proportion of the (white) sap wood or (red) heart wood. In one or other of its forms it is an abundant tree throughout the Province (except upon the Southern coast), abounding especially upon ridges of felspar rocks, and in rich moderately moist soils. It is a tree of rapid growth, increasing its diameter under favourable circumstances as much as two-thirds of an inch in a single year, and attaining some- times a height of not less than 70 feet.
The beech is extensively employed for fuel, being indeed, for that purpose, second only to the rock maple. The wood is “hard, of a fine smooth close grain, and very dense, having a specific gravity of ‘724” (Emerson). It is durable when kept dry, and also when permanently wet, as in the bottom of ships, but decays rapidly when subjected to alternations of these conditions. It is well adapted for the manufacture of saw-handles, shoe-lasts, plane- stocks, and for chairs and farm utensils. From its ashes large quantities of alkali are obtained for the manufacture of soap. Its nuts are oily and nutritious, and afford a large portion of the food of various wild animals, including the bear, partridge, and squirrel. Young beeches properly arranged, and by grafting made
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 25
to grow together, form solid and elegant hedges, but have the dis- advantage of checking the growth of other plants near or under them.
3, THE SPANISH CHESTNUT (Castanea vesca, L.).
This tree, so highly prized in somewhat more southern latitudes alike as an ornament and for its abundant and agreeable fruit, can hardly be said in fairness to have a place among the indigenous trees of New Brunswick. None are found in a wild state ; and though a few have been introduced from time to time, they do not appear to thrive, and are rarely seen.
4. THE HORNBEAM (Carpinus Americana, Michaux).
This tree, though by no means an abundant one, is occasionally seen in the New Brunswick woods, especially in the central and southern counties, along the banks of streams, and on the sides of ridges. It is found in considerable quantity in the vicinity of Salmon river in the county of Victoria, and in other places on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company. When conveniently attainable, it is used by lumbermen in the manufacture of axe-handles; and for other purposes requiring great strength, it is considered to be the strongest of the northern woods. When well seasoned it makes excellent fishing rods, being very strong, light, and elastic.
5, THE AMERICAN HOP HORNBEAM (Ostrya Virginica, Willd.).
This tree, readily distinguished from the preceding by the hop- like fruit from which its name is derived, is, like the latter, com- paratively rare in New Brunswick, though apparently distributed over its entire area. It is generaily found in rich woods, attain- ing a height of 20 to 30 feet. Like the preceding species, with which it shares the name of “ Ironwood,” it is remarkable for tough- ness and compactness, adapting it for the manufacture of levers and similar uses, whence it is also often called ‘‘ Lever Wood.” It is also employed for the cogs of mill-wheels and for agricultural implements.
Tue Bircn Faminy (Betulacee).
This family embraces in New Brunswick five species of true Birch, and two of Alder.
26 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
1. AMERICAN wHiITE BIRCH (Betula alba, var. populifolia, Spach.).
The White Birch, or Little Grey Birch as it is sometimes called, is a very common tree in New Brunswick, especially near the coast and on the poorer class of soils, such as occur over ex- tensive tracts occupied by the rocks of the coal-measures. It is usually found in large groves associated with spruce, pine, or other soft-wood trees, and under favourable circumstances attains a height of 30 to 40 feet. The wood of the white birch is easily worked, and when well seasoned, light and strong; and is not liable to crack, split, or warp.
2. THE PAPER BIRCH (Letula papyracea, Ait.).
The Paper Birch, like the White Birch, which it nearly resembles, is found in all parts of New Brunswick, but usually in soils some- what more fertile than those covered by its relative. It is said especially to favour gravelly soils and the slopes and bottoms of valleys covered with large and moss-grown rocks.
There are many thousands of acres on the head waters of the Miramichi, and on the heads of streams emptying into the Tobique in the same vicinity, which are covered with forests of this wood, where it grows to a large size, sometimes attaining a diameter of 2 feet and a height of 40. It is usually sound and free from rot. There is abundance of small trees growing here also, which are white hearted and suitable for the manufacture of spools or thread reels. One Maine factory turns out 100,000 gross of spools per day, and consumes 2500 cords of birch annually.
3. THE YELLOW BIRCH (Betula excelsa, Ait.).
This is one of the larger, and therefore, more valuable of the birches ; its straight and nearly uniform trunk attaining at times a height of 70, and a diameter of 2 or more, feet. It is a very common tree in New Brunswick, growing usually on rich, soft, and moist lands in company with spruce and ash, and besides being extensively employed for many domestic uses, and for shipbuild- ing, forms with the black birch an important article of export. This tree is found abundantly on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company, both on the Miramichi and St John rivers.
It attains its greatest size on the fertile lands of the Upper
THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 27
St John ; it is a strong and durable wood. Besides its employ- ment in shipbuilding, it has also been used in cabinet work, and in Fredericton for the frames of fanning mills and seed separators. When straight grained it is not liable to warp or split ; it is susceptible of a high polish, and derives additional beauty from the peculiarly irregular and variegated disposition of the grain. The young saplings make excellent hoops.
4, CHERRY BIRCH, SWEET OR BLACK BIRCH (Betula lenta, L.).
This, the handsomest and the most valuable of the birches, is found in all parts of New Brunswick, flourishing in nearly the same situations as its relative, the yellow birch, and attaining about the same proportions. It is especially common on the deep and shady banks of rivers, and on gravelly ridges along the shores of the Bay of Fundy, as well as on the fertile lands on the Upper St John, east of the Grand Falls, and north of the Tobique river, where there are hundreds of thousands of acres covered by it, the land there being of excellent quality. This great body of birch extends over a large part of the Crown Lands in the county of Restigouche ; the wood there is of large size and exceptional quality. It is also largely found on the Miramichi river and its branches ; the soil there being inferior, the quality of the wood is not good. It also occurs in many other places on the Crown Lands of New Brunswick. The principal use of the black birch is for the manufacture of square timber for export and in ship- building, especially for the keel, lower timbers and planks of vessels; its most important characteristic being its durability when kept permanently wet. Being of a fine and close grain, readily capable of being polished, as well as possessing a rich colour, somewhat resembling mahogany, it is largely used for chair and cabinet work. It is employed by the carriage makers for panels. It takes any kind of stain well, and can be easily made to represent rare woods, The birch used in the Boston Navy Yard is kept under water, which not only prevents it from decaying, but much improves its quality.
Tae Wittow Famiry (Salicacee),
The Poplars are the only trees in this family which require notice here. The Balsam poplar (P. balsamifera), in its variety the Balm of
28 THE WOODS OF NEW BRUNSWICK.
Gilead (var. Candicans), grows to a fair size along the shores of streams in the northern part of New Brunswick, especially on the banks of the Tobique, Grand, and Green rivers. Its wood may be used for door panels or other interior house finishing, as it is soft and easily worked ; it takes a stain and finishes well. It is only
locally abundant, and therefore of small importance commercially.
AMERICAN ASPEN (LP. tremuloides, Michaux). ]
This tree is found in great abundance on the lands of the New Brunswick Land and Lumber Company, especially on the heads of the Clear Water, Wapskehegun and Gulquac, covering large tracts of land growing on ridges mixed with white birch and fir. It is of large size, attaining frequently a diameter of 2 feet. The larger trees are more frequently sound than the smaller, as the latter, when affected by disease or rot, soon die. It also occurs abundantly on the Crown Lands of New Brunswick at the head of the Miramichi, and along the Intercolonial rail- way, where, however, it is of smaller size. The wood of the Aspen, when seasoned, is tough, light, and hard. It does not warp, crack, or shrink, and is very close grained and white, and takes a high polish. It is used in the construction of sleighs and carriages, and makes excellent floor boards in house building, and might be used much more than it is for furniture and interior finishing. It also makes superior handles for hoes, rakes, or other similar implements.
THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. 29
III. On the Plantations on the Estate of Sorn, in the County of Ayr, N.B. By Davip Barctay, Forester.
The estate of Sorn, the property of James Somervell, Esq. of Sorn, is situated in the uplands of Ayrshire, about midway between the source and the mouth of the river Ayr, and about 15 miles from the sea as the crow flies. The area of the estate is computed at 6245 acres, and though its plantations may compare favourably with those of other properties in the district, they are not of very great extent, and may be set down at about 600 acres. Before entering on the present condition of the plantations, it may be as well to relate, as far as known by the writer, the history of the estate.
At an early period it was possessed by a Countess of Loudon. It is supposed that she planted the oldest and most remarkable trees. These comprise the English elms near the castle, some beeches that are planted in the form of a crescent in front of the castle, with the beech walk on the west, and the wood in the Cleuch on the east. Itis said of her, when she read or heard of Dr Johnson’s remarks on the treeless state of the Hebrides, or rather of Scot- land, that she exclaimed, ‘‘ Deil tak’ the man! whar was his een when he didna see my Elms?” About the beginning of the present century, it came into the possession of the Somervells, merchants in Glasgow. At that time the greater part of the estate must have presented a very bleak and sterile appearance, but by the judicious and enterprising spirit of the late Miss Agnes Somervell, the area of the plantations was increased from about 100 to the present extent of about 600 acres, The original 100 acres are of the most permanent character, and are growing on the banks of the river Ayr, in the romantic Cleuch Glen, and extend along Sorn Bank to a little to the east of Dalgain. These are composed of the following species : alder, ash, beech, chestnut, elm, Italian poplar, lime, oak, plane, Scots and spruce firs. The larch that was formerly on the estate was all cut about twelve years ago, when the demand was good and the price high. The underwood consists chiefly of hazel, mountain ash, and briars, with numerous clumps of rhododendrons, which flourish here luxuriantly, and spring up freely from self-sown seed.
I will now detail the method adopted by Miss Somervell in forming the greater part of the plantations. The estate, for the
30 THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN.
most part, was an extensive moor when she became owner of it— undrained, and without a tree for shelter ; so that there was un- limited scope for improvements. She appears to have known, or been well advised, that the first step in estate improvement was, according to the old adage, “for agriculture to succeed, arboricul- ture must proceed.” With wisely-directed skill she managed to overcome the difficulties which meet those who have to form plantations on poor peaty soils and bleak moorlands. Limestone existing on the property, she set about opening limeworks, and liberally dressed the land with the fresh lime ; digging, trenching, and ploughing it in, and then cropped the land for two seasons before commencing to plant it. Open drains also were cut at certain distances apart to carry off all stagnant water, and the ground was thoroughly protected against the inroads of stock from the adjoining moor by a substantial stone dyke running along the boundary. The interior fences are composed mostly of beech, which have thriven well and form good hedges. After the liberal treatment of the soil above indicated, it was a matter of certainty that the plantations would succeed, in such a manner as to satisfy even the most sanguine expectations. The soil, for the most part, is peaty, in some places pure peat, resting on a clayey subsoil, well suited to grow a crop of Scots and spruce fir timber suitable for the local markets of a mining district.
The plan followed in laying out the plantations was most simple, the straight line being used, except around exposed farm homesteads, where the shelter-belts were laid out in curves, and around the top of Tinkholm Hill, where the line was carried about 30 feet below the summit, or about 900 feet above the level of the sea, and the highest point of the plantations,
It may be said that there is a sameness about the plantations, as the crop consists principally of Scots and spruce firs. This, however, shows the wisdom of the planter, because the soil is only adapted to grow such hardy kinds of trees, for which a ready market is now found in the neighbouring coalfields of upper Ayr- shire; the extensive Airds Moss collieries being within a few miles of the estate. It is seldom that the planter reaps the benefit of his labours ; but, if he takes a pleasure in the work of planting, it is a source of great satisfaction to see the trees thriving and the work proceeding in the manner desired. The lady who planted these woods does not appear to have had any desire to
THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. 31
reap a profit from them, and would not even allow them to be thinned, except in the slightest degree. Hence it was that an extra thick crop remained on the ground until it reached maturity ; the very thickness of the crop bringing the trees the earlier to maturity, to the great advantage of the succeeding proprietor, to whom it afforded a rich harvest.
The success which followed the laying out of these plantations must be attributed to the advantages they had to start with; the soil was fresh and in first-rate condition, and the fences proof against the inroads of stock.
The hedges are a feature of the estate, and, along with the plantations, have added largely to the amenity and value of the property. They are formed chiefly of mixed beech and thorn, but are occasionally composed wholly of beech or of thorn, and there is one good hedge of hornbeam, They were laid out and planted by the same lady who formed the plantations, and al- though now past their best, they must have been splendid fences for many years, and great care was bestowed in keeping them properly dressed and in good order. In forming the hedges, the most of them have been planted too high on a raised bank, with a ditch alongside, and the consequence is, they suffer much from droughts. A raised bank, such as this, composed largely of light peaty soil, soon becomes void of nutriment for the hedge, with the result that the plants become stunted and perish, unless much money and labour is annually expended in manuring and digging the hedge-bottoms, to keep the plants alive and vigorous. It is always advisable not to plant hedges too high above the level of the ground, and to take care at all times to keep the soil well up to the neck of the plants when the hedge-bottoms are being cleaned and dug. In renovating beech hedges, it is best to pro- ceed by cutting in one side of the hedge at a time, taking the stronger side first. Then in the -course of a few years, when the first cut side has been fairly renewed, the other side should be treated in a similar manner, by cutting it close in, and filling up all gaps with healthy plants. The work of renovating and planting should be done early in the season, so that the roots may be in action to sustain the plants against the heat and droughts. The hedges while in a young state, and during the process of renova- tion, should be securely fenced and protected from stock and the ravages of hares and rabbits.
The late Graham Somervell, Esq. of Sorn, succeeded to the
32 THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN.
estates in 1856, by which time all the operations already described had been completed, and some of the plantations were approaching maturity. These, in the course of the following years, were cut down, and realised a good profit, particularly the fine larch already referred to. Mr Somervell took great pains to replant the cleared woods, and during a period of about twenty years thus renewed upwards of 400 acres, which are now thriving well, although much difficulty was at times experienced in protecting them from the ravages of vermin while the plants were young. Be- tween the years 1876 and 1881, an extent of over 140 acres was planted with 688,000 trees; which shows the keen interest the late proprietor took in his woods. Since 1881 the woods have been left very much to themselves, and are growing up again with much vigour, with the prospect of a good second crop, if they receive proper attention and judicious management.
A few years ago the trees in the Sorn Bank wood became un- healthy, and were cut down. Portions of it, being too wet for the growth of Scots fir, were planted with poplars, and the dry parts were filled up with Scots fir, All are doing well, and in the course of time, under good management, will give a full crop of timber. In some favourable spots in this wood are a few grand specimens of Scots fir; the finest on the estate is growing at Dalgain, above Sorn village, and measures 9 feet 8 inches in circumference of bole at 1 foot from the ground, and 8 feet 10 inches at 5 feet up. A part of the wood above Sorn Manse was cut down and replanted with Scots and spruce firs and larch. The firs are doing well, and the larch look healthy to the casual passer-by, but are badly affected with disease, to which probably many of them may yet succumb. Some of the planta- tions to the west of the castle and along the Mauchline road have been planted with hardwoods for a second crop, with spruce firs as nurses, which have been allowed to remain too long. The hardwoods have got drawn in consequence, with the result that the storms of last winter levelled the most of them.
The same storms played sad havoc among the remainder of the original plantations, extending to about 100 acres, growing along the sides of Tinkholm Hill at an altitude of between 800 and 900 feet. Upwards of 50,000 trees were blown over here by the gales, and their removal necessitates the cutting down of at least as many more, as the crop will average nearly 1000 trees
THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. oo
per acre, To realise a moderate price, these trees should all be cleared off within the next three or four years, before the timber begins to deteriorate.
The wood growing at the highest altitudes—say about 800 feet above sea-level—has during recent years brought £50 an acre thirty-five years after being planted, while the adjoining farm-land ouly brings 10s. per acre per annum; showing a yearly balance of 18s. 6d. per acre in favour of wood cultivation. At a lower altitude, woods forty-five years old were sold at £75 an acre, and the rent of the adjacent arable land was 15s. per acre, of which at least 2s. 6d. ought to be credited to the plantations for the shelter they afford. After all allowances are made for interest on the original outlay, these facts clearly prove that well-managed plantations pay the owner a handsome return within the reason- able period of a moderate lifetime, especially when they are laid out with skill on land of the nature of these uplands.
The woods which were replanted from fifteen to twenty years ago suffered considerably from the storms of last winter, but the blanks then made might be quickly and satisfactorily filled by planting poplars. In these woods the larch has completely failed, and has caused a thinness of the crop, but the Scots fir and spruce are thriving. The woods from ten to fifteen years old are now in a healthy condition, although they suffered much from rabbits when planted; there being as many as 100,000 young trees eaten in a year by these voracious vermin, The plantations have not been so much overrun with rabbits since the practice of letting them at so much per head was discon- tinued, which was simply putting a premium upon keeping up a large stock of the vermin, The remainder of the renewed planta- tions, from three to ten years of age, are very healthy, and promise in time to make a fine second crop.
The present proprietor does not intend to plant until he ean do so with plants of his own raising; and with that object in view, he has recently laid out and partly stocked a home nursery. The site of the nursery in the Saugh Park was ploughed in the autumn of 1882, one foot deep, with four horses, turning up some of the subsoil. A crop of potatoes was planted in this in the spring of 1883, but the land was so infested with wire-worm that the crop produced little more than the seed. This year the beds for the forest tree-seeds were prepared without any manure, so that the soil is in rather a poor condition for the
VOL. XI., PART I. €
34 THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN,.
plants to grow well. Rabbits abound in the vicinity, and as little is done to protect the plants from them, it is feared the labour will prove very much in vain, At present the manage- ment is in a state of transition, Formerly the wood was cut by the forester’s staff, from 10 to 20 acres being cleared each year. Now the wood is sold standing to the wood merchant, who employs men to cut it at 3d. per tree, and 3d. per tree to burn the brush- wood. The forester goes over the plantation with the merchant, and values each tree according to the class of wood it produces. The different classes are ‘‘ propwood,” from 6 inches at the thick end to 3 inches at the small end; “ 6-inch cuts” measure not less than 6 inches in diameter, and “ 7-inch cuts” not less than 7 inches, and so on. For these the following prices are obtained : propwood, 5s. 3d.; 6-inch cuts, 7s. 3d. ; 7-inch cuts, 10s, per 100 feet lineal, and 3d. per cubic foot for larger Scots and spruce fir. The trees now being cut will measure on an average 30 cubic feet.
This is not likely to prove a satisfactory mode of operation, as the drains are filled up to allow the carts to pass through the woods. The upturned roots of the blown trees falling down on a part which is not burned along with the brushwood, will become a breeding ground for insects that will destroy the young plants whenever the ground is replanted, else there must be a long delay till the roots and brush are completely rotted. Young trees when planted near the old stumps, root all to one side, and consequently are easily blown over; and from the fact that they do not readily make roots among the old ones, they do not succeed so well as they should otherwise have done. In renewing plantations, it is of importance to use only the best variety of Scots fir, taking care to avoid the inferior sort, which is of a straggling coarse habit of growth, and does not stand the pinching of the side shoots so well as the native Scots fir. No doubt the poor quality of the soil is conducive to a straggling growth, yet a little pinching-in of the points of the lateral shoots, if done in time, does much towards a compact growth. When the lower branches of Scots fir are dead 6 or 7 feet up, they should be care- fully cut off close to the stem. This affords ventilation, and gives room for more plants on the ground to select from at future thinnings. It also allows freedom for carrying on operations in the woods, and for beating out the ground game. Whenever woods get crowded and impenetrable by overgrowth or otherwise,
THE PLANTATIONS ON THE ESTATE OF SORN. 30
the rabbits increase with great rapidity, and quickly become a nuisance to all concerned ; the farmer suffers heavily ; the forester gets his work spoiled; the proprietor endures great Joss and dis- appointment ; and the gamekeeper is grumbled at by everybody.
I will conclude by briefly remarking that the woods on the estate were much damaged by the last winter’s storms, and will take many years to recover, even under the care of a skilled forester. Many of the trees in the vicinity of the Castle are old, and past their best, and no storm comes and goes without laying prostrate some of the old favourites, or causing havoe among the heavier branches. Several gaps have been made in the beech walk, and the fine wood in the Cleuch is broken up in many places ; so that the future of these fine woods and plantations is a subject for much careful thought and study by an experienced man.
I may add that Sorn Castle is of great antiquity, and is known to have been of considerable extent in 1409. It was added to in 1793, and was remodelled by the late proprietor in 1866. Till last winter, it was well sheltered from the prevalent westerly gales by woods on Sorn hill, which were much damaged by the storm that worked such ruin in the other plantations on the estate. Near the Castle stood the ancient village of Sorn ; the modern village is half a mile higher up, on the banks of the river Ayr. The site of the old village mill is now occupied by the pretty modern flower-garden of the Castle. These changes and improvements have been the work of many years. The late Mr Graham Somervell took a great personal interest in the im- provement of the estate and in the welfare of every one living upon it, ably filling the part of a wise, far-seeing, and kind country gentleman.
36 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS.
IV. Natural Reproduction of Forests. By Joun M‘Lean, Forester, Edinburgh.
Natural Regeneration may be best defined as a branch of the science of Arboriculture, or rather let me term it Sylviculture, having for its object the reproduction of timber forests from seed, a subject which, I believe, has not received any great or special attention in the past history of British Forestry, at least so far as I am able to judge from my observations of woods in different parts of Scotland. From this, however, no one must jump to the conclusion that it isan operation quite unknown amongst us in the routine of practical forestry. In Scotland, at least, there are not a few extensive estates spread over portions of different counties, where natural reproduction is known and systematically practised with perfect success, especially among Scots fir woods in the northern counties, where local circumstances are found most favourable to carrying out such a system. When necessary, it is assisted, of course, by artificial means, with the most successful results. The future programme of forest economy must at all times be based on science and art, with a view to establish and facilitate a systematic code of rules by which the forester may be enabled to perform certain duties and operations with dexterity and skill. This will tend to produce the best results of practical forestry in its phases of profit, pleasure, and ornament, always leading on to having the right tree planted and growing in the right place. In order to carry this out to a profitable end, I will state the few points which must first be attended to.
All areas under woodlands should be clearly mapped out, so as to show distinctly the boundaries and divisions of the various blocks ; connected with this map there should be a forest book con- taining details of the names of the woods and the numbers of the blocks; their age; length of period of rotation; description of soils and subsoils, and their suitability to grow and mature certain species of trees under local conditions ; also noting the annual rate of growth of certain species, and all experiments carried out each season. This would form a basis upon which all operations might be grounded, and it could be deviated from when circumstances rendered it necessary to do so. The loss to the owners of private woods is much greater than is generally imagined, owing to the common want of a systematic basis in
NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 37
conducting the routine forest work, and especially is this the case where those in charge of the woods are often changed. The most essential work for the time being of the skilled forester is perhaps utterly neglected, which entails a heavy loss to the proprietor at a future period, although it cannot easily be detected at the time by the uninitiated. Or, it may be the persistent and careful experiments of the enthusiast that is thus negiected and thrown aside as worthless, before the fallacy or the practical soundness of the problem aimed at can be solved, and thus cause a serious loss of valuable knowledge to the profession. It is by the practical experiments carried out by enthusiasts that the medical profession has attained to such a high standard in the preservation of health and prevention of disease. And so it is with the forester, who, without the practical aid of experiments in many cases, may be compared to a captain without a chart sailing in strange seas. His being right or wrong is a mere chance, and he may be treating his subject the reverse of what Nature ordains, with results the most unsatisfactory. Let me quote the words of Professor Huxley. He says that “ignorance is visited as keen as wilful disobedience ; incapacity meets with the same punish- ment as crime. Nature’s discipline is not even a word and a blow, but the blow comes first without the word. It is left for us to find out why.”
The woods and forests of this country may be designated as of two kinds: first, underwood or coppice, z.e., wood which is grown and cut at short periods of from 20 to 30 years, composed of deciduous trees, and which are reproduced by suckers from stools. The second may be called timber forests, 1.e., wood which is only intended to be cut at intervals of long periods, which may be reproduced naturally or artificially, and may be composed of evergreen or deciduous trees—conifers or hardwoods—which are grown for the purpose of yielding the heavy timber used in the various branches of manufactures and art.
I shall confine my remarks at present to the second or timber forests. Various species of timber trees have different constitu- tional habits, and it will be necessary to set forth a few examples by way of illustration. We will first assume that a Scots fir wood is about ready to undergo a process of restoration, and that the process is intended to be brought about, if possible, by natural reproduction from seed. By this it may be taken for granted that the said forest or wood is ripe, or approaching maturity, from
38 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS.
an economic point of view. This may occur at any age ranging from 80 to 120 years. But it will depend much upon local circumstances, as the ratio of growth and the vigour of the trees will be in proportion to the conditions of the climate, soil, elevation, aspect, and exposure,
It is presumed that the forest is fairly drained and securely fenced. The first operation, then, is to begin a series of thinnings at intervals over the entire forest, adopting at the outset a systematic method of selection of reserves at each felling of timber. These thinnings should extend over a considerable period of years. I would urge that in all cases the first cutting be carried out with great caution; and this should be speci- ally attended to when the crop upon the ground is dense, as all the roots will be weak and superficial in proportion to the density. The trees, therefore, cannot have such a hold in the soil, and will be liable to suffer injury from boisterous winds. To guard against this, a thick sheltering belt ought to be left all round the outside of the forest. By so doing it will serve a two- fold purpose of some importance. First, to act as a barrier against the wind ; and second, to give shelter to the young seed- lings. Should the forest be so extensive that it is impossible to spread the periodical thinnings over the entire area, it will be necessary to adopt another method, viz. to have it done in sections or sub-sections as may be found most suitable. In com- mencing to fell the timber within the belt that is left for shelter, begin at the side which is most exposed to the breeze. By so doing the older seedlings will help to shelter the younger from the blast. At each thinning it is essential to select the worst trees for cutting first, such as those that are stunted in growth and deformed ; all that show any signs of decay, as resin bursts, foliage changing to a yellowish green, annual growths arrested or diminishing, and those which bear great numbers of cones of a diminutive size ; these being all indications of approaching decay. At each felling, all the loppings of branches and brushwood should be gathered into heaps and carted outside the wood, with- out delay, to any open spot where they can be burned, so as not to injure the foliage of the reserve trees, or any seed that may be germinating near the surface of the ground. Should the surface of the soil be covered with a tough herbage of grass or heath, it will be necessary to go over it, after the brushwood and rubbish is removed, and take off large sods, say 18 to 24 inches in
NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 39
diameter, at regular distances apart, and then loosen the soil with a tramp or shoulder pick, so that the seed may alight on the pre- pared portions of the soil as they drop from the trees or are blown down by the wind. This operation should be performed after all the cuttings. When the last cutting but one is to be made, which may vary as to time according to local circumstances and in pro- portion to the progress of regeneration, there ought to be a good sprinkling of seedlings interspersed here and there in groups all over the ground. At this thinning, standards must be selected at regular intervals as reserve trees, so as to ensure a more complete dispersion of seeds from the cones. The trees left as reserves should be in good health, with clean tall boles, and flat expanded heads, equally balanced all round, so as to distribute the seed as evenly as possible, and allow air and headroom for the young trees. In carrying out this operation much must be left to the discretion of the forester as to the different methods which may have to be applied according to circumstances. It would be tedious to enumerate all the details of the different plans in- volved in carrying out natural reproduction, indeed, I do not . shrink to maintain that it is impossible to do so, as the method of application which may prove quite a success in one place may be a complete failure in another, even within a radius of afew miles. This may occur from various causes, such as the nature of the soil, subsoil, altitude, exposure, and such like. All such operations must invariably be conducted and guided accord- ing to natural and local conditions. There is a proverb which says, ‘‘ the errors of a day may take years to rectify,”’—a truism reminding us that we should cherish prudence and circumspection in all our undertakings.
When the final cutting of standards has to be performed, it will be judicious to begin the felling of the reserve trees from the reverse point of the previous fellings; performing all the other operations, such as loosening the soil, etc., as already described. If the prevailing wind is from the west, the final operation of felling will proceed from the east side. By this the action of the wind will go far in assisting the dissemination of the seed into the prepared soil. Great care must be taken in felling the timber among the younger crop of trees, as their heads at this stage will be furnished with a heavy canopy of foliage in propor- tion to the size of their stems. Consequently it will be necessary in most instances to lop all branches off the reserve trees before
40 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS,
they are felled, and at the same time a rope should be attached to the top of the trees, in order to guide them in their descent to where they may fall with least injury to the young plants. The foregoing details may be deemed sufficient for carrying out the practical operations of natural reproduction from seed, and may also be considered as applicable to both hard and soft wooded trees.
Before we pass from this subject let us turn our thoughts to a few remarks upon the seed of Scots fir, and briefly to the demerits of inferior seed; a matter which must always possess a considerable amount of importance in connection with the process of natural regeneration of forests if success is to be attained. The seed of the Scots fir is of a light nature, consequently it is wafted by the wind to great distances; its winged appendages forming an important factor in the process. The constitution of this tree is extremely hardy, and it may therefore be considered invaluable from many points, viz., it is able to endure great extremes of cold and heat, factors which are of no little importance in their bear- ing upon the germination of the seed, and also the healthy develop- ment of the young trees. But while these remarks can be justly applied in advocating the merits of Scots fir seed, the line of demarcation must be drawn here, as they do not apply to the seeds of conifers in general. And with this I venture to offer my ideas, however imperfect they may be, that to carry out the natural reproduction of woods from seed by natural sowing, the vital point is to obtain strong healthy seed, with an equal distri- bution of it over the ground, from vigorous reserve trees during the whole period of regeneration. It may be asked how can such an operation be conducted upon the lines described, where only half a crop exists, and that often in a weakly condition in some portions of matured woods? But I am well aware of this unfortunate fact which undoubtedly prevails, to a great extent, in the woods of this country, sometimes arising from a hap- hazard system of management, and at other times from natural causes which might have easily been foreseen. Light and air being essential to the growth of the young plants, it is necessary, in order to guard against the sunlight being confined to patches, that the standards should be equally distributed over the entire area, so that the sun’s rays may not be too strong in one spot and too weak in another. Let us try to illustrate this point by an example. For instance, should the soil be of a sandy or calcareous
NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 4]
nature, the result will be as follows :—in a dry season young seed- lings will be apt to get scorched under the influence of too much sunlight, while, on the other hand, in wet seasons in strong tenacious soils, and under the influence of too much shade, cones and seeds of all trees are liable to rot, and plants germinating under such unfavourable conditions sicken and die from want of the necessary amount of sun-heat ; from which it is obvious that extremes in all cases are decidedly injurious.
A word in regard to the selection and choice of seed. It is remarkable how little care at times is bestowed upon the selection of seed. It seems in reality to be only stating a truism that the labour of cultivation is utterly lost if bad seed is used. <A diseased or weak parent tree cannot produce strong progeny ; neither can an inferior seed produce a perfect tree. There is therefore the greater need to take every precaution, to insure that the produce of healthy trees only is allowed to ripen and disperse over the forest to raise a crop of trees; and hence the necessity for removing all sickly or deformed trees at the earliest possible date, to prevent them bearing cones, the seed from which is always inferior. Cones borne on vigorous and shapely trees, are certain to contain seed which will produce a healthy and vigorous progeny.
Let us turn now to the natural reproduction of the Larch ; and allow me to impress upon all the necessity of displaying even greater caution in conducting the operations in connection with larch, than has been shown to be necessary in regard to Scots firs. During the process of renovation, all the thinnings should be conducted upon a limited scale, never omitting to leave an equal distribution of reserve canopy in every part of the wood. Iam inclined to believe that larch, between the ages of one and eight years, is rather a delicate plant, and although it requires a certain amount of sunlight, which is essential to its health, yet, between the ages indicated, too much sunlight is as injurious to it as too little. Im youth it comes early into leaf, and the growth is apt to be further advanced in the leading shoots than in the laterals ; hence the former is more subject to injury from spring frost. Any one can satisfy himself of this fact by examining the seed- beds and young plants in a nursery after a frosty night in early spring, when the leading shoots will be found checked in their growth, and unable to keep pace with the laterals, which, owing to their backward state of growth, have escaped injury. Some
4.2, NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS.
authors maintain that the larch is stimulated into action by a mild temperature early in the season, and that its annual growth commences at once. From my observations of the nature and growth of the larch, I am inclined to differ from this opinion. The process of growth in larch is slow and is generally retarded until after midsummer, about the end of June or beginning of July, when the active powers of growth become vigorous. In con- trast to this, take as an example the Scots fir, or any other pine. Their growth is almost completed before larch begins to grow, and the latter continues to grow in mild seasons until late in the autumn, which is in no way favourable to its constitution, as it is liable to be injured by frost before the young wood is properly ripened.
In regard to the Spruce, its hardihood, rapidity of growth, and suitability to almost any kind of soil, have never been seriously questioned, but it can only be seen in its pristine grandeur when growing in a free, moist soil, Spruce fir is specially adapted for growing in low, moist situations, It has no tap roots, as a rule, like the Scots fir and other pines. Its roots do not penetrate deep into the soil, but spread near the surface. Its foliage is rather dense, which renders it top heavy, and in exposed situa- tions it cannot resist the force of strong gales so well as most other forest trees. Soils of a moist nature encourage the growth of a tough coating of herbage, which is not only unfavourable to the germination of spruce fir seed, but to that of all pines. Then at intervals most species of trees are liable to be unproductive, or their seeds unfertile in some seasons, and in the case of spruce woods it has not yet been found a profitable matter to renovate them by natural reproduction in this country. Still, it can be carried out by the same means as larch and Scots fir.
We shall now pass from the pine family with this remark, that with all the numerous introductions of conifers and other trees into Britain, we must not overlook those which have proved themselves so hardy in the past, as to resist the effects of the winter blasts of our climate in exposed situations. We must therefore look carefully after them, so as to ensure them from becoming extinct, as they are naturally the trees best adapted for planting upon the hills and bare wastes which cover so much of the surface of this country, and which are vastly improved by a clothing of our hardy forest trees.
I shall next endeavour to apply the natural mode of reproduc-
NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 43
tion to deciduous forests, containing a mixed crop of hardwood trees. In order to do so, it will be necessary to mention briefly a few of the deciduous trees which compose the woods of our country, viz., the Oak, Ash, Beech, Elm, Maple or Sycamore, Spanish Chestnut, Cherry, Birch, Alder, Horse-Chestnut, Horn- beam and Hazel. With this number of species of a good age, which a mixed wood is assumed to contain, we may begin the work of reproduction without delay, by frequent thinnings at stated periods, as already detailed. The first point which engrosses our attention in connection with the operation is, How can we best accomplish our object in order to obtain the best results? Here also it will be necessary to consider which kind of tree is the most likely to attain the greatest value in a given time, and such trees must necessarily have precedence as the future crop. At the same time note must be made of the kind from which the supply of timber has to be furnished for estate and local demands. Due attention must also be given to the following, viz., the probable financial results to be obtained from the produce of the crop by judicious management; the means whereby the timber may be most expeditiously brought to the market, which latter includes a sufficiency of good roads throughout the woods. These and many other points which it is unnecessary to relate, cannot, or ought not, to be lost sight of by the practical forester when conducting operations with a view to either natural or artificial reproduction of forests.
We next proceed to examine the ground, in order to ascertain whether or not drainage is required, care being taken not to overdrain the ground, as the trees will thrive better in a mode- rately moist than in a very dry soil. All the drainage that is requisite is to remove the water likely to accumulate in miry or quaggy parts of the wood. The surface vegetation will indicate to the practical eye if the soil is in want of further drainage. It now rémains for us to carry out the operation of thinning by a selective mode of treatment, as already described for Scots fir ; removing the birch and Spanish chestnut, and, if possible, felling all the inferior trees first ; reserving those of a sound and vigor- ous growth until it becomes necessary to remove them in rotation out of the way of the young trees. It will be judicious to con- duct all the thinnings by successive selections of the most suitable trees, until a sufficient distribution of seedling plants are spread over the entire area to ensure a crop. As many seeds of forest
44 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS.
trees do not germinate until the second year after being com- mitted to the soil, the various thinnings ought to be regulated according to the growth and progress of the young seedlings, until all the timber is felled, except the reserved standards or seed-bearing trees. These should be left for some time in order to complete the final sowing of seed, and also to assist in pre- venting the surface of the soil from drying up, as well as retaining a canopy for shelter against cold winds and unseasonable frosts.
In connection with this, I shall point out some of the advan- tages to be derived in carrying out natural reproduction with a selection of species over the same operation in a wood consisting only of one species of tree. We will take a wood of any two species of mature hardwood trees ; as, for example, the oak and the beech, which are in many respects allied to one another. In considering regeneration in their case, at the outset we are beset with natural obstacles ; for no reliance can be placed in obtaining an annual crop of seed from those trees. One season there may be a good crop of acorns, while there is a dearth of beech mast. The following season there may be abundance of the latter, and none of the former; in fact, it is a rare chance to obtain a crop of seeds of both oak and beech in the same season. This draw- back, coupled with an uncertain climate and an inferior soil or subsoil, will greatly retard the process of regeneration. Conse- quently, with such obstacles, it will take longer time to complete the operation, and in certain cases it may end in failure. On the other hand, where a wood is composed of a varied selection of trees, reproduction can be produced in much less time; for we can almost rely upon obtaining seed from some of the varieties annually if the seasons are in any degree moderate; therefore, under such conditions the work can be safer and sooner performed than by the former example.
I shall next draw attention to another method for the repro- duction of hardwoods by means of sowing the seed artificially. In order to render the process clear, there are several things which must be defined to some extent. I shall therefore class the seeds of hardwoods into three divisions—first, those seeds that require to be sown immediately after arriving at maturity, such as alder, birch, and elm; second, those which do not gene- rally germinate until the second spring after ripening, such as the ash, cherry, hornbeam, and service; third, those which fall into the category of heavy seeds, which cannot be dispersed to
NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 45
any great distance by the action of the wind, such as oak, beech, chestnuts, and hazel, and to these we may add the maples. The latter class all germinate the following spring after they are ripe ; the second class must be gathered and pitted for some time; the first class may be sown immediately after the seeds are ripe. Heavy seeds may be gathered as soon as they are ripe, and planted in vacant portions of the woods by dibbling them into the soil to the depth of two inches. The seeds of maples and suchlike do not require to be placed so deep; about an inch is sufficiently deep for them, and they may be sown as soon as they are ripe.
A great deal more time ought to be devoted to this work of renovating woods than is usually given to it. Ifa few women or boys were employed during the autumn to gather the seeds of hardwood trees as they ripen and fall, a great advan- tage would be derived, and wonderful progress might be made in reproduction at comparatively little cost. The women and boys should be under the supervision of a skilled man, who would take care to select the seed from healthy trees, and to see that it was properly planted in the vacant spaces in the woods. All healthy seed-bearing trees ought to be specially numbered previous to the seeds being gathered. It would be judicious to have this done in the summer when the trees are clothed with their foliage, and any signs of decay are more easily detected than when the trees are in a leafless state.
Seeds of pines and other trees might also be sown with great advantage on rocky ledges and elevated spots difficult of access, where it is almost impossible to find enough of soil to plant the roots of a tree in with any prospect of success. Seedlings in such exposed places have a better chance to grow up, inured to the blast and firmly rooted in the crevices of the rock, so as to be able to brave the fiercest storm.
Then as to fencing in connection with the natural reproduction of forests, permit me to say it is an absolute necessity to have all woods undergoing the process of regeneration fenced in a sub- stantial and secure manner, so as to perfectly exclude hares and rabbits and all such destructive vermin. If young seedlings are eaten over before they have developed buds or leaves, they perish immediately. The leaves and buds are essential to the life and growth of a plant, and if these be nibbled off the seedlings, it is in vain to expect a healthy and vigorous crop of trees from any
46 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS.
process of regeneration. It is therefore utterly impossible to carry out the reproduction of woods with creditable success where vermin are allowed to accumulate in large numbers, without taking the necessary precaution to enclose the area with adequate fencing. The destruction of young forest trees by ground game and vermin entails a serious loss to the proprietor, and is a source of great trouble and disappointment to all concerned; therefore every means should be taken to exclude them from young woods from the very beginning.
Let me now draw attention to several errors in the management of woods which at times are apt to be overlooked, although of great importance. If woods are allowed to become too open from any cause—say overthinning—they become defective from want of shade, and the moisture accumulated during the winter is dried up in the early summer before the growing season is over. We must not forget that water is a very important element to vege- tation. Trees will live in almost any soil,—though they may not attain to any great value,—so long as it is moist enough and of sufficient depth to retain moisture. In order, therefore, to econo- mise the moisture of winter, so that it may last through the period of active growth in summer, it is necessary to have the ground in the plantations sufficiently shaded from the action of the sun’s rays, more especially in dry situations. It is quite common to see trees in woods of a branchy, straggling habit of growth, while the ground between them is covered with a thick coating of grass and weeds, usually indicating that the woods have been overthinned, or have been mismanaged or neglected in some way. Nothing betrays this more plainly than to see trees de- veloping vigorous laterals, which are a sure sign of the presence of too much sunlight, and shows that the canopy of foliage is not dense enough. This applies more especially to evergreen trees of the pine family, the larch excepted, which delights in sunshine.
Again, we often meet with hardwoods growing in places where pines only should be planted ; and on sites suitable for hardwoods we too often find a crop of miserable pines, showing that the planter was ignorant of the nature and habits of the trees he was dealing with. Hardwoods are in no way suitable for planting upon exposed sites, nor at high altitudes, and can only be grown to advantage in moderately low-sheltered situations. Conifers, however, are peculiarly well adapted for growing at high eleva- tions and in exposed situations.
NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS. 47
I have already described a variety of soil where certain hard- woods can be grown collectively. I shall now state briefly where those can be best grown individually. The ash may be seen growing best on a loamy soil, with a porous subsoil, in moist situa- tions near to streams. It is in no way suitable for being grown upon tenacious clayey soils, and should not be planted in them. Young seedlings of ash are very liable to be nipped by spring frost.
The beech is a tree which is not fastidious as to the soil in which it grows. It is seen growing in all soils, from heavy clayey loam to light sandy soil, in the latter of which it is seen at its best, if it be not too barren or too dry. Its habit is umbrage- ous, and, like the spruce fir, its roots run near the surface, which makes it a valuable companion to the oak, whose roots dip deep into the soil. The beech is also able to stand a great amount of shade, and, along with the silver fir, we have no trees to equal them as underwood for growing in the drip of other trees. The seedlings of the beech are also very sensitive to frost, especially until they have developed their true leaves.
The Scots elm also must be regarded as a hardy and accommo- dating tree. Although it delights to grow in rich moist soils, still it is often found growing upon the most barren soils and in the most exposed situations. From observations of its growth and quality, 1 venture to say that it ought not to be planted in dry, sandy, or calcareous soils, as in such it is very liable to dry rot. Trees may be affected with rot, and, so far as outward appearance goes, they may show no sign of disease, beyond the stems being slighty enlarged from the base upwards for a few feet.
The oak may be seen growing to the highest perfection in a strong loamy soil, with a deep subsoil of an open clayey nature, but it should always be grown in the best soils, so as to produce the finest quality of its valuable timber.
The hornbeam luxuriates in a similar soil to the oak. This is the tree which Evelyn adored as the foremost of all deciduous trees. From what I have seen of its merits, I am of the opinion that more of it should be grown in Scotland, as its timber is of first-rate quality, and is in much demand for the manufacture of articles of turnery.
The sycamore is another tree of great value in the reproduction of forests, as it produces good seed at a comparatively early age. The soil best suited to its growth is a moist loam. It is valuable for planting in exposed situations, either maritime or inland, as
48 NATURAL REPRODUCTION OF FORESTS.
it is able to withstand the sea breezes better than any other deciduous tree, and its hardihood enables it to grow to maturity upon hot barren soils where other hardwood trees would languish and die. Its seeds will germinate in the poorest soils, and I have frequently observed them springing up freely in woods which were under the influence of the sea breeze, even in exposed places where other vegetation seemed nearly extinct.
Both the Spanish chestnut and the horse-chestnut are good trees for reproducing forests, as they seed freely at an early age. They prefer to grow in a deep sandy loam. The horse-chestnut is better adapted for ornament than for purposes of profit. Its bril- lant spikes of flowers, of various hues, present an attractive feature in the park or forest in early summer.
The alder is a tree which grows rapidly in cold and wet soils unsuited to most other trees, while it produces useful timber and seeds freely at an early age.
I have simply attempted to describe a few of the primary details and features connected with the operation of the reproduc- tion of woods. But were it necessary to conduct by artificial means the afforesting of extensive tracts of moorland or rough waste lands, the operations here described would be both tedious and expensive. In that case recourse must be had to other means to diminish expense and economise time, by introducing other implements than the spade, such as ploughs and grubbers, with horses, oxen, or steam as the motive power.
In concluding this paper the writer may state that he has endeavoured to select and lay before his readers suitable illustra- tions 1n connection with this important subject as far as his limited experience and ability permitted, But the incidents and features are so numerous and different, that volumes instead of pages might be filled without exhausting the subject. Let it be understood that the writer has by no means given his suggestions and observations with the intention of teaching others, but simply in order that thereby an interchange of thoughts and observations may be promoted, There is no department of natural science which affords such an abundance of pleasing investigation as that contained in the vegetable kingdom. It invites the attention of every intelligent mind, with a feast of gratified reward for diligent research.
PRUNING : ITS ORNAMENT AND UTILITY. 49
V. Pruning: Its Ornament and Utility. By Aurx. T. GILLANDERS, Forester, Skibo Castle, Dornoch.
Mankind have always been lovers of trees. Whether we read ancient or modern history, we find the same fondness of trees. Indeed, they have often been planted to perpetuate the memory of heroic actions. Poets, painters, and philosophers have all admired trees and drawn inspiration from them in their respective studies. A tree has always been considered a fit object to arouse the esthetic sentiments of a musing or thinking intellect. If trees, then, have such lofty ideas in connection with them, the wonder is that arboriculture has not yet found a place among the sciences, or that the forester has been hitherto looked upon as little better than a mere hewer of wood.
Having said there is so much beauty in trees, the question arises, what does such beauty consist of? Various reasons have been adduced as to the metaphysical origin of beauty. According to some, beauty consists of order with design, unity with variety, or in their relations. The zsthetic sentiment is aroused when we see well-arranged forms and proportions; and likewise in the recurrence of rectilinear figures, such as the square or paral- lelogram. Beauty, too, is seen in the symmetry of likeness, side by side, and in the repetition of similar parts. In trees beauty may be seen by the most cursory observer in a series of regular lines, in the approximation of definite angles, and likewise in the union of the firm with the flexible. How beautiful to see the stem and branches gradually tapering into slender points, and to behold the slender parts yielding to the gentle breeze while the stout stem stands firm.
But while we thus trace the geometrical forms which give rise to the sense of beauty, we must never forget that no feeling of beauty is aroused unless the regularity is seen to be something apart from mere mechanical arrangement—a regularity which is in accordance with nature. Hence, in giving a definition of pruning, both for the purposes of ornament and utility, we may say that it is the art of aiding, not of improving nature—the art of cutting off useless additions and imperfections—additions which are considered ugly and worse than useless, Therefore the pruner, instead of trying to show his art and handiwork to the eye of the
passer-by, ought to try and make Nature hide Art. VOL. XI., PART I, D
5O PRUNING’: ITS ORNAMENT AND UTILITY.
It has always been a principle of mankind to work first, how- ever rude and imperfect, and then discover the principles upon which the work is based ; and so it is in pruning trees. Many foresters may be able to prune trees, both for the purposes of use and ornament, and yet be unable to define any principles upon which the art of pruning is based. Presuming, therefore, that while the majority of foresters are practically able to prune trees, I may be allowed to lay down what I consider a few guiding principles. In other words: how are we to prune trees in harmony with their habits so as to increase their beauty and value ?
To many persons the idea of a tree is nothing else than a large plant, with an ascending axis or stem from which spring an indefinite number of branches ramifying in all directions; the former being suitable for timber, the latter fit only for fuel. To persons of no higher ideas or tastes the pruning of a tree ought not to be intrusted.
The direct object of pruning is either for use or ornament, or it may be to prevent trees from being blown down by the wind.
If pruning for ornament is the object in view, it may be sometimes allowable to sacrifice intrinsic value to a certain ex- tent, especially within policies or along roadsides. On the other hand, when pruning for utility is the object, ornament should not be altogether sacrificed, and need not be except within plantations. In order to carry out ornamental pruning properly, remember that it is neces- sary to study the natural habit of trees.
Many debates have arisen as_ to whether pruning increases the size of a tree or not. One thing, however, is certain, that early and judicious pruning increases the commercial value of timber trees. Fig. 1 will illustrate this. Had pruning been resorted to when the tree was in a young state, we should have had the trunk A prolonged instead of forking at x. Now, suppose the trunk A is 10 feet long, and that we cross-cut B and c at 10 feet in length
Fig. 1.
PRUNING : ITS ORNAMENT AND UTILITY. 51
respectively, and sell the three pieces. The part a yields more cubic measurement, and consequently brings a larger sum than the other two pieces. Ifthe trunk a had been prolonged in thick- ness with the natural taper to the length of 20 ft., the tree would have been of much greater value, which is easily demonstrated as follows:—Suppose the two parts B and c were welded together they would not be so thick as 4. Fig, 2 will illustrate this geometri- cally. Cirele 1 represents a section made through D, E (Fig. 1), Circle 3 represents sections made through B and c (Fig. 1), and according to a well-known geometrical problem, circle 2 is equal in area to twice the circle 3, representing B and Cc; which are of the same size. Hence may be seen at a glance the great loss in- curred by allowing the tree stem to fork. Many writers maintain that pruning has the immediate effect of increasing the size of a tree, and that periodical pruning ought to be adopted to increase the value of a tree. Early pruning or training increases the size and value of a tree; but it is equally true severe and repeated prunings decrease the size and consequent value.
The simplest method of pruning is the process of disbudding. Coniferous trees very often require to be treated by this method. When a coniferous tree loses its leader the top whorl of branches turns upwards, and by disbudding all but one of these shoots we can form a leader. At other times when a tree shows two con- tending leaders, the pinching of the terminal buds of one of the rival shoots will cause the tree to grow with a clean stem instead of a neglected and forked bole like Fig. 1.
Following the dictates of experience we find that pruning is most beneficial when young trees are operated on. Forest trees in a neglected condition and of a comparatively young age, often come under the forester’s treatment, and such trees if judiciously pruned will be enhanced in beauty and increased in value.
When the ordinary pruning knife is found too weak for the work, the pruner ought to be furnished with proper tools, such
Fig. 2.
52 PRUNING : ITS ORNAMENT AND UTILITY.
as a hand-saw, pruning chisel, and averuncator. When pruning has to be performed to any extent by a number of workmen, it will be found indispensable to have a skilled person to superintend the operations, and if the superintendent has his heart in the work, he will find his time fully occupied. Assuming, therefore, that we are in the position of such a person, how should we proceed with the work ?
In the first place, we should survey the outline of the tree under treatment, and mentally calculate the amount of pruning required. A very little observation will show that the outline of all trees is either an isosceles triangle, a circle, or an ellipse. Having formed in our mind’s eye the shape of the finished tree, we at once commence operations. Comparatively young trees, especially oak, growing in a freely exposed place, produce on their stems and leading branches a great number of small spray, fit for nothing but to suck the sap from the main body of the tree. All these ought to be cut off. In addition to these twigs, we find a numher of branches radiating from the stem, without getting their extremities to the outside owing to the crowding of the stronger branches. These ought to be cut off from the stem or at other parts which will not spoil the shape of the tree. Having done this, nothing further remains but to prune the tree, according to its natural form, by foreshortening the branches more or less as may be found necessary. Attention must be paid to the outline so that the tree may be properly balanced. Strong branches ought to be cut close in at the most appropriate fork, so that the part left may grow in the direction of the part cut off. Branches rubbing against each other ought to be separated. A strong branch bending upwards among horizontal branches ought to be cut at the commencement of the curve. In addition to strong side branches, all upright shoots ascending from horizontal branches towards the top of the tree ought to be cut clean off. Some writers maintain that the operation of pruning ought to commence at the top of a tree. As a general rule, the operation will be found more easy to work from the base to the apex. Pruning from base to apex has many advantages, and ought to be generally insisted on. Branches cut off at the bottom fall easily to the ground, whereas branches cut at the top fall on the long lower ones, and, collecting, have a tendency to break them. All dead or decaying branches ought to be cut clean out from base to apex.
PRUNING : ITS ORNAMENT AND UTILITY. 53
In the process of foreshortening, care must be taken to do the work in accordance with the laws of nature. Thus, due notice ought to be taken of the angle which the branch makes with the stem, and likewise the curve which the branch takes. Some pruners believe in cutting out the terminal shoot of young branches. But nature will have her own way, the lateral branch growing in the same plane, and uniting with the stronger part, forms the same original curve. Others lay it down as a maxim that all branches ought to be trained by a pruning process to a horizontal shape. To do this universally is trying to change Nature. Suppose, for example, we are pruning a Lombardy poplar, would it not be absurd to attempt forming horizontal branches ?
In order to prune or lighten trees as a prevention to their being blown over by gales, we ought not to mar their beauty. Due regard ought to be taken to balancing them by taking off strong side and top branches, or those within the centre which may produce the effect aimed at, without marring the beauty of the tree. Unless guided by the principle of “ better losing part than the whole,” we ought not to spoil Nature.
Some maintain that pruning is always injurious to trees, and that while it is essential to the increase of marketable timber, it ought to be done cautiously and by degrees, believing that to cut “close in” to the stem injures the tree. Such practitioners either make their cuts about a foot from the stem, or they peel a ring of bark where the branch is finally intended to be cut. Each of these methods is equally bad. Instead of saving the tree, a little observation will show that they are injurious ; whereas close cutting is beneficial, When a branch is cut off at a part where no other branch remains, either young twigs spring up or the stump dies back to the bole of the tree. And if the dead stump is cut off at the expiration of a year, or at the earliest period procrastination will permit, the cut never heals. Thus, the decayed part absorbs moisture, and imparts disease to the tree. On the other hand, if a branch is cut “close in” at the proper season, healing commences soon after, and quickly and effectually completes itself.
In order to facilitate healing, all wounds ought to be made perfectly smooth and even. If this be not attended to, protuber- ances will be formed on the stem. As a general rule branches swell a little at their union with the trunk, but it is prefer- able at times to cut a portion of the bulge so that the trunk
54 PRUNING: ITS ORNAMENT AND UTILITY.
may have an even surface, without twigs springing from the wound,
All wounds which will not heal in a single season ought to be covered with coal-tar containing a small quantity of paraffin. This mixture is preferable to paint. Wounds which have not been covered absorb moisture, and impart decay to the tree ; and although the mark of the cut may be no longer seen from the outside, a decayed piece of wood presents itself when the tree is sawn up. On the other hand, if the wound is covered with coal-tar only a small streak is seen when the timber is cut up after the wound is healed over.
Great diversity of opinion has existed in regard to the proper season for pruning. The season in which pruning is performed has a deal to do with the healing. Wounds made during the winter do not heal so much during the ensuing summer as cuts made in the earlier part of summer. Winter pruning gives rise to a greater abundance of young shoots than summer pruning. In fact, pruning may be performed at any season except during late spring. At that season the ascent of the sap is in full play, and wounds made then bleed so much that they never heal satis- factorily.
NEW AND RARE CONIFERZ AT PENRHYN CASTLE. 55
VI. On the New and Rare Conifere at Penrhyn Castle, North Wales. With Illustrations. By Ancus D. WeEssTER, Forester, Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, North Wales.
Bounded on one side by the Menai Straits, and on the other by the great Snowdonian range of mountains, this estate affords peculiar advantages for the successful cultivation of the less hardy conifers of recent introduction.
The mild, genial climate of this part is clearly shown by the growth of such plants as Hydrangea hortensis, Fuchsia Riccartoni, and Cunninghamia sinensis—all of which stand our winters with impunity. Being at a considerable elevation above sea-level, those parts of the park around the castle are often exposed to cold, cutting winds, blowing in from the Irish Sea, or to still more severe storms from the south-west, which latter often occasion much damage to trees and shrubs. From a list preserved here it would appear that at one time (upwards of thirty years ago) most of the Conifers then introduced were planted out experimentally over the park. Of these many have died out altogether, others have progressed very slowly, and many additions have been made of the kinds which seemed to thrive best in the locality.
The trees enumerated in the following report are, with few exceptions, growing within the park, scattered over an extent of nearly a thousand acres. The soil varies a good deal in different parts, but is principally composed of sandy loam resting on shaley rock or slate. A more detailed description of the soil and situa- tion will, however, be given where necessary as we proceed :—
ABIES CANADENSIS. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . : : ; : 46 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . : - 4 4 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : ‘ 3 2 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 21 0
The drooping, plume-like habit of this tree renders it particu- larly suitable for planting as a single specimen on the lawn or pleasure ground. It prefers a moist, shady situation, and cool, light soil. The best tree of this kind (the dimensions of which
D6 NEW AND RARE CONIFERZ AT PENRHYN CASTLE.
are given above) is growing in rich, peaty loam, with a northern aspect, on the outskirts of a plantation at some distance from the park. The wood is hard, of a pale yellow colour, and takes a good polish. Introduced in 1736 from North America.
ABIES DOUGLASII. Feet. Inches.
No. 1.—Height of tree, . ; : : : 79 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . : ; 13 6 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 11 6 Diameter of spread of branches, . ; 66 0 No. 2.—Height of tree, . : ; ‘ : 70 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . ; : 13 0 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . ; : 11 0 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 51 0 No. 3.—-Height of tree, . : 2 : 65 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . . 9 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : ; 8 if Diameter of spread of branches, . . 48 0
These trees are growing within a short distance of each other, and quite close to the carriage drive leading from the castle to the grand entrance. The position they occupy is rather exposed, and the leaders of all three have been repeatedly broken over by the wind. It is a striking fact that nearly all the Douglas firs here, on overtopping the surrounding trees, become table- headed from the repeated loss of leaders, Being of rapid growth, the young wood is not sufficiently hardy or matured to withstand a severe storm, and most of our trees of this kind being nursed up amongst others are naturally tender, so the leader on rising above the surrounding trees is apt to get broken over. I believe a plantation formed of this tree alone, or mixed up with others of an almost equal rate of growth, such as the silver fir, would suc- ceed better, and be less liable to injury during a storm than when planted out as single specimens or mixed up amongst general forest trees. The timber grown here is hard and durable, suscep- tible to a fine polish, and is frequently used as spars in ship- building on the Menai Straits. It is heavy, firm, not liable to warp, and of as deep a colour as the yew. Introduced in 1826 from North-West America.
“I
NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRHYN CASTLE. 5
Apies MENZIESI. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . : : : 56 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . : : 5 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, : 3 10 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 28 6
Standing on the lawn to the south-west of the castle, in a partially shaded position, this tree is in a very healthy and flourishing condition, its beautiful silvery appearance being a marked characteristic of this fir when grown in a suitable soil, such as a cool and rather heavy loam. On warm, sandy soils this tree is generally infested with red spider. From specimens of the wood preserved here, it appears similar in all respects to our common spruce. Introduced in 1831 from North-West America.
ABIES MORINDA.* Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . ‘ ; 43 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot oye - : 5 5 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 3 8 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 24 0
Several handsome specimens of this tree are scattered through- out the grounds, the two largest occupying sheltered positions near the castle. On cold, late soils, or at high elevations, this tree succeeds best, as on low-lying or damp ground the young shoots are often killed by spring frosts. This species of spruce attains great perfection here, and as an ornamental tree its droop- ing foliage contrasts finely with those trees of a more stiff and rigid appearance. The timber is hard and the concentric rings firmly packed. Introduced in 1818 from Northern India,
ARAUCARIA IMBRICATA. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . : ; : 42 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot oo: ; * : 4 9 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . 4 : 4 0 Diameter of spread of branches, . . 20 0
The symmetrical and picturesque form of this tree, combined with its noble proportions, justly entitle it to rank amongst the finest of the conifers. Planted on the lawn or pleasure ground it
* See Plate V.
58 NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRHYN CASTLE,
forms a conspicuous object from the peculiarity of its construction, and is admirably adapted for standing alone, where it forms a beautiful pyramidal cone, densely covered with gracefully droop- ing, up-curved branches. A prevailing evil with this tree in many places is the loss of the lower branches, which is due in a great measure to planting it in low-lying, damp situations, or under the shade and drip of other trees. No tree more dislikes being overhung and shaded by others than the Araucaria, and nothing is more adverse to its healthy development.
Constitutionally there are great differences in trees of the Araucaria, some being naturally hardy, and others the reverse, due in a great measure, no doubt, to the altitude at which the seeds have been grown in their native country. The finest Araucarias are always found in well-drained ground on rather an exposed and airy situation ; unreclaimed, wet land produces but poor specimens, and these very susceptible to the influence of frost.
Many fine specimens of this tree have been planted in the park and surrounding grounds, the healthy appearance and thriy- ing condition of which proclaim it to be eminently adapted for our maritime situation. The wood is yellowish-white, fibrous, beauti- fully veined, and capable of being polished and worked with facility. Introduced in 1796 from Chili.
CEDRUS DEODARA. Feet. Inches. Height of tree, . . : : 55 0
Girth of stem at 1 Bath up, 5 3 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, : ; 4 8 Diameter of spread of branches, . ; 26 6
This tree is growing in stiff loamy soil, close to the sea at Port Penrhyn, and alongside a magnificent specimen of Araucaria imbricata. These trees contrast admirably, and are splendid examples of opposite styles of beauty. The Deodar seems to thrive in almost any soil, examples of which may be seen in the woodlands here, where it has been extensively planted. Intro- duced in 1831 from Northern India,
Creprus LIBANI. Feet. Inches.
No. 1.—Height of tree, . ‘ : ‘ 52 0 Girth of stem at 1 faneh up, . ‘ : 16 6 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . ‘ : 15 0 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 54 0
NEW AND RARE CONIFERZ AT PENRHYN CASTLE. 59
Feet. Inches.
No. 2.—Height of tree, . : : : 52 0 Girth of stem at 1 Set Ue : ‘ 15 0 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 14 6 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 75 0
These are noble trees of a singularly massive appearance, and well fitted for adorning the positions they occupy. The branches, which spread horizontally to a width equal to the height of the tree, have a peculiar flat, shelf-like form, and having been at different times broken during severe storms, give to the trees an old and hoary appearance. Both trees are growing in rich loam—one at each end of the flower garden—and though partially sheltered, are at times subject to sudden gusts of wind, especially from the south-west. The wood, bark, cones, and even leaves of this tree are saturated with resin. Introduced before 1676 from Asia Minor.
The wood of both Cedrus deodara and C. Libani is durable, close grained, hard, and so resinous that the splinters burn like candles. I have compared wood of the cedars grown here with slabs of cedar sent from India, and can detect but little differ- ence. The Indian slabs are certainly the harder, but this may be due to the wood being older, and consequently better matured. The colour and texture of the woods are much alike, and I find that the home-grown wood takes as fine a polish as the Indian.
CUNNINGHAMIA SINENSIS. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . - : ; 42 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot. Wp; = : : 4 7 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . . : 3 8 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 26 0
Although not generally hardy in Britain, especially in the north, fair specimens of this tree may occasionally be met with in the south and south-west of England. The above specimen is growing in cool, loamy soil, with a south-eastern aspect, in the flower garden. It is in a fairly healthy state, well clothed with bright green foliage, and is considered one of the finest trees of the kind in England. Sections of the wood grown on this estate resemble both in texture and colour those of Araucaria imbricata, Introduced in 1804 from Southern China,
60 NEW AND RARE CONIFERZ AT PENRHYN CASTLE,
Cupressus LAMBERTIANA. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . ; : ; ‘ 28 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . : : 6 6 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . - : 6 1 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 26 0
This is undoubtedly one of the most beautiful of the cypresses. The best tree on this estate is growing on the lawn at Brynmeirig, close to the Penrhyn Slate Quarries, on sandy loam, with a north-western aspect. It is a beautiful specimen, with light green pendulous branches, so closely packed that no part of the stem is visible, and, judging from its large size, must have been planted here shortly after its introduction in 1838. This tree bears stem and branch pruning with impunity. The wood is hard, close grained, and beautifully veined.
CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . : : : 32 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . . : 4 6 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . ‘ 5 3 10 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 12 0
This beautiful upright cypress is among evergreens what the Lombardy poplar is among deciduous trees—a fine contrast to the more spreading and round-headed forms. Its deep evergreen branches and leaves render it a desirable tree for planting in graveyards or cemeteries; and owing to its fastigiate habit, it forms a suitable tree for planting near buildings where the pre- vailing architectural lines are horizontal. When judiciously placed along the margins of plantations, or among other conifers of a more spreading habit, its effect is strikingly beautiful. It succeeds best in a rather dry sheltered situation. The above tree is one of a group of eight growing on the lawn-tennis ground near the castle, and are all remarkable for the profusion of small cones with which the dark evergreen branches are almost constantly covered. Introduced prior to 1548.
PICEA GRANDIS. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . : ; : ; 66 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . ; . 5 5 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . ; : 5 +t Diameter of spread of branches, . : 30 6
Few of the Picea tribe on this estate are in a more healthy and
NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRHYN CASTLE. 61
thriving condition, or seem better adapted for their seaside situation than this. When viewed from a distance, it closely resembles the Douglas fir, but has a more dense habit and majestic appearance. In well-sheltered situations, and on good loamy soil, it is one of the finest of Conifers for landscape effect. Being of rapid growth, the leader is very apt to get broken over during severe weather, which may be easily rectified by substi- tuting a side branch in place of the lost leader, The stem is tall and very straight, and densely covered with bright green branches. This tree should be allowed ample room, for, if grown in close proximity to others, the foliage becomes sparse, and the whole tree assumes a sickly and naked appearance. Introduced in 1831 from North-West America.
PICEA NOBILIS. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . . . : 54 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot we é : : 5 9 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . . : 5 4 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 24 6
This is a magnificent tree, especially during summer when the light green of the young, and deeper green of the older foliage, is strikingly effective. It grows very rapidly here after becoming thoroughly established, soon shooting up to a great height, especially when planted in cool, deep soil. The wood is white and nearly worthless. Introduced in 1831 from North-West America,
PiceA NorDMANNIANA. Feet. Inches.
No. 1.—Height of tree, . é : : 54 0 Girth of stem at 1 ae nye, . : 6 0 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 5 2 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 24 0 No. 2.—Height of tree, . - : : ; 46 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . ; : 5 0 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 38 8 Diameter of spread of branches, . . 17 0
As an ornamental tree for landscape effect, few, if any, of the Conifers lately introduced into this country, can compare with this noble tree, either for beauty of outline, or the rich contrast produced in summer by the dark glossy green of the old, and the
62 NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRHYN CASTLE,
light fresh lively tints of the younger, foliage. Whether planted on the lawn, or mixed with other trees for the sake of contrast and variety along the margins of plantations, it never fails to attract attention and produce the most pleasing effects. This tree is also capable of accommodating itself to a great variety of soils and situations ; although like other species of Picea, it prefers a strong deep loam, rich in organic matter, and not apt to dry up in summer or retain too much moisture in winter. On the other hand, cold stiff clay and poor inorganic surface accumulations are inimical to its growth, more especially where the subsoil consists of hard pan. From the appearance of the timber of trees which I have cut up, there can be no doubt that it will possess the qualities, and sustain the reputation of the timber grown upon its native hills ; it is hard, resinous, and the concentric rings firmly packed. No. 2 was planted in 1857 by Sir James M‘Garel Hogg. Introduced in 1848 from the Crimea,
PicEA WEBBIANA. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . é ‘ : 5 56 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . . : 5 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 4 2 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 22 0
When in perfect health, the beautiful dark green leaves dis- tinctly marked underneath with white or silvery stripes, and large prominent cones of a deep purple colour, contribute to make this tree perhaps the most ornamental of the genus. Unless planted in a rather cold, late soil, and sheltered position, it is subject to injury from unseasonable spring frosts, by which the young growths are frequently killed ; more than a foot in length of many branches being almost destitute of leaves, and giving to the tree an unhealthy and miserable appearance. Our largest specimen, though not the finest, stands on the edge of a walk that winds along the Ogwen river. It is well sheltered from all parts, and is growing on rich, damp, vegetable mould.
Another specimen growing at Brynmeirig, near the Penrhyn Slate Quarry, though inferior in point of size to the above, has a more healthy and thriving appearance. It is growing on peaty loam, incumbent on slate rock, with a northern aspect. Intro- duced in 1822 from Northern India.
NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRHYN CASTLE. 63
PINUS AUSTRIACA. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . - : . 42 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot = : : : 5 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . . : 4 + Diameter of spread of branches, . ; 22 0
Perhaps few of the Pine tribe possess the many good qualities which can be attributed to this species. Whether for shelter, effect, adaptation to different soils and situations, or planting in maritime districts, it is invaluable. The timber is also tough, resinous, and well fitted for resisting the evil effects attending the change from a moist to a dry state. Around the margins of most of the seaside plantations here, this pine is extensively planted, as it not only withstands the rough sea breeze better than any other, and by its thick, strong foliage, renders a great amount of shelter to other less hardy kinds, but also, by its dark, glossy appearance, it presents a striking effect when viewed from a distance. Introduced in 1835 from Austria.
Pinus CEMBRA. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . : : : 37 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot wig : : 3 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 2 8 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 12 0
Being of but slow growth and recent introduction, none of this species has attained great dimensions here ; but, from the healthy appearance of several planted out as single specimens in the park, as well as others interspersed through some of the general planta- tions, we anticipate much success with them. This pine also luxuriates in maritime districts; the two best specimens are standing within a few yards of the sea, though partially sheltered by a narrow strip of wood. It attains greatest perfection in a rich, deep, loamy soil, although many examples of fine growth may be seen here on thin, poor soils, and very exposed situations. The wood of this tree is soft, close grained, and easily worked ; the heart-wood is of an agreeable light brown colour, resinous, durable, and fragrant. The well-known Swiss carved ornaments are made from this wood, Introduced about 1746.
64 NEW AND RARE CONIFERZ AT PENRHYN CASTLE.
PINUS EXCELSA.
Feet. Inches. Height of tree, . : ; : ; 45 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . 4 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . 3 6 Diameter of spread of branches, . 4 24 0
The light silvery foliage of this pine renders it very desirable for contrast, especially along the outlines of plantations which can be seen from drives or roads. Mixed with the Austrian and other pines of a darker foliage along one of the carriage drives here, it has a very pleasing effect. In general appearance it bears a resemblance to the Weymouth pine (P. Strobus), from which, however, it is easily distinguished ; the leaves are about double the length, the tree is of a more robust habit of growth, and the bark is much rougher than on that species. It requires to be planted in a rather sheltered position, as on exposed ground the foliage becomes scanty, and the tree stunted in appearance. The wood of specimens grown here is white and soft, though rather compact, and contains a great quantity of resin. Introduced about 1827 from the Himalaya.
PINUS LARICIO. Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, 5 : . 72 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . ; : 9 5 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : , 9 4 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 45 0
By neglect in early growth this tree was allowed to retain a plurality of leading shoots, two of which branch off at 7, and two at 11, feet from the ground, the largest of each girthing at 3 feet from point of junction 5 feet 11 inches and 5 feet 3 inches respectively. Each limb is perfectly straight, and would make a good-sized tree of itself. This pine thrives admirably here on almost any soil; and several, but little inferior to the one described, may be found scattered throughout the park and sur- rounding plantations. It is one of our best pines for breezy maritime situations, and deserves to be extensively cultivated, as, apart from its free growth and majestic appearance, the timber is quite equal to the red deal of commerce. Introduced in 1759 from Southern Europe.
NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRHYN CASTLE. 65
PINUS PINASTER.
Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, . : - ‘ 62 0 Girth of stem at 1 fae up, . : : 12 0 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 12 0 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 42 0
This tree prefers an open and airy situation, and in the vicinity of the sea, where the temperature is to some extent equalised, it attains large dimensions. Planted among other trees, it has a tendency to grow crooked, produce large side-limbs, and if at all crowded, loses the foliage to near the top. The wood of the tree is soft, and of little value. Our largest tree, which stands in the flower garden, produces annually a large quantity of cones, from the seeds of which we have raised several lots of fine healthy plants, much more hardy, I have no doubt, than those raised from imported seeds. In raising this pine one thing should be par- ticularly attended to—viz., that the young plants, if allowed to remain long in the nursery lines, must be frequently transplanted, as neglect of this generally proves fatal to the tree when planted out permanently. Introduced in 1596 from Southern Europe.
SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRENS. Feet. Inches.
No. 1.—Height of tree, . ‘ : : 56 0 Girth of stem at 1 fae. Ups . F 12 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . ; : 9 2 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 30 0 No. 2.—Height of tree, . 5 : ; ‘ 64 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . : : 8 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : - 6 7 Diameter of spread of branches, . - 24 0
No. 1 occupies a sheltered position within a few yards of the carriage drive leading from Penrhyn Castle to the model village of Llandegai. It is a beautiful specimen, richly clothed with glaucous green foliage from the ground upwards, but unfortun- ately during a severe storm, some five years ago, the leader was broken over, which is, however, being gradually replaced by a side branch.
No. 2 stands at a short distance from the above, on the sloping
VOL. XI., PART I, E
66 NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRUYN CASTLE.
ground near the Ogwen river. Being well sheltered on all sides, and growing in rich loamy soil, though attaining a great height, the girth of this specimen is not in proportion to those of a less rapid rate of growth.
This tree cannot be recommended for bleak or exposed situa- tions, as, in consequence of its continuing to grow so late in the autumn, the young shoots are not sufficiently matured to stand our severe winters with impunity. From specimens of the wood contained in a collection of the different kinds grown on this estate, it appears close-grained and of a beautiful mahogany colour, though extremely light and brittle.
The Sequoia, or Redwood of California, has probably been over- rated as a suitable tree for our climate generally, and apart from actual results it is not likely that a tree inhabiting one of the most genial climates in the world, and with ample opportunities of spreading into cooler regions near, would be suited for a cool northern climate.
Tuuta Lops.
Feet. Inches.
Height of tree, ; . 43 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . , ‘ i 2 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : é 3 7 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 29 6
This is a handsome, fast-growing Conifer, with a smooth upright stem and long graceful branches, of a deep, shining, green colour. It is perfectly hardy, and grows rapidly when thoroughly established, and though shooting up to a great height in propor- tion to the thickness of the stem, it is not liable to be broken over, the young wood being naturally tough and able to resist the fiercest storm, It thrives best in a peaty loam, though many fine examples of rapid growth in pure loam may frequently be seen throughout the park.
In cutting the wood of the trunk of young trees I have found it to be of a firm texture, with the concentric rings firmly packed. A good deal has been said and written lately by practical men upon a substitute for the larch; and in my opinion Zhuia Lobbii will be found one of the best, if not the very best Conifer for that purpose. Introduced in 1853 from North-West America.
NEW AND RARE CONIFER AT PENRHYN CASTLE. 67
WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA. Feet. Inches.
No. 1.—Height of tree, . : ; : : 53 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . : : 10 1 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . : : 7 8 Diameter of spread of branches, . ; 22 0 No. 2.—Height of tree, . ; : c ; 38 0 Girth of stem at 1 foot up, . : : 7 5 Girth of stem at 5 feet up, . ‘ : 6 1 Diameter of spread of branches, . : 18 6
All the trees of this kind are in a very healthy and thriving condition, and seem well adapted for their maritime situation. The growth though rapid is strong and well matured, which is proved by this tree seldom loosing its leader or becoming damaged during a storm. The largest (No. 1), which grows close to the carriage drive, but nearer Llandegai than the trees already described, is a model of symmetry, with foliage of the richest description. It is growing in a rich sandy loam, well drained, and in a partially shaded position.
No. 2* was planted on the 17th October 1859, by Her Majesty The Queen, and has made an average yearly growth of 19} inches. It grows on the lawn-tennis ground, between the castle and flower garden, where there is a collection of trees planted by Members of Royalty and other distinguished personages. The soil is shallow and incumbent on shaley rock. Here also is another Wellingtonia, planted in 1857 by Lady Hogg, which has attained a height of 55 feet, being an average yearly growth of nearly 26 inches. The wood of Wellingtonias grown on this estate is light, soft, and fragile, though easily worked, and in appearance resembles the ‘‘ Cedar-wood” used for pencils. In- troduced in 1853 from California, by Messrs Veitch & Sons, of Exeter and Chelsea, through their collector, William Lobb.
* See Plate VI.
68 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION, EDINBURGH, 1884.
The International Forestry Exhibition held in Edinburgh in 1884—+the first of the kind in the British Empire—originated in a proposal made by some members of the Scottish Arboricultural Society in the spring of 1882; and the project was announced at the annual meeting of the Society that autumn, as recorded in the Proceedings. The proposal was at once taken up with en- thusiasm by foresters at home and abroad, and especially by members of this Society. It received the generous patronage and support of Her Majesty The Queen, and the Royal Family; many foreign Princes and States; the Home, Indian, and Colonial Governments ; the leading nobility and landowners of the United Kingdom ; the Lord Provost and Town Council of Edinburgh; the Highland and Agricultural Society; and numerous learned, scien- tific, and industrial bodies throughout the country.
After the preliminary meetings were held under the auspices of this Society, and the matter fairly placed before the public, a large General Committee, including many influential members of the Society, was elected, with the Marquis of Lothian, K.T., Presi- dent, to carry out the proposed Exhibition. Eventually, the direction and management devolved on an Executive Commitiee of thirteen members, presided over by the Marquis of Lothian. This Society was represented on the Executive by the President of the Society, Dr Cleghorn of Stravithie ; two ex-Presidents, the Marquis of Lothian, and Robert Hutchison of Carlowrie ; Colin J. Mackenzie of Portmore ; and Malcolm Dunn and John Methven. The other members of the Executive were Sir James H. Gibson Craig, Bart., of Riccarton, Vice-President ; Sir George Harrison, Lord Provost of Edinburgh; Fletcher N. Menzies, Secretary, Highland and Agricultural Society ; John Murray, of the ‘“ Chal- lenger” Expedition ; William Skinner of Corra, W.S., Town Clerk of Edinburgh ; James D. Park, Engineer; and James A. Wenley, Bank of Scotland, Treasurer ; with Mr George Cadell, Secretary. Through the energy and excellent arrangement of the Executive, assisted by an efficient staff of officials, the exhibits, collected from almost every quarter of the world, were arranged for inspection by the day originally fixed on—the first of July—when the Exhibition was formally opened by the Marquis of Lothian, in the presence of alarge and representative assemblage. During the three and a half
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 69
months it remained open, it was visited by upwards of half a million of people from all parts of the world, among the dis- tinguished company being their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales, Prince Albert, Prince George, and the Prin- cesses Louise, Victoria, and Maud of Wales; several foreign poten- tates ; the Premier, Mr Gladstone ; Sir Stafford Northcote, Bart., and many other eminent and distinguished men. The result was a great success, which must be particularly gratifying to the members of this Society, to whom is due the credit of the inception of the Exhibition. Its educational effects can hardly yet be fully estimated, but they have undoubtedly taken a deep hold of the public mind, and will in future prove a permanent benefit to the British Empire, as well as to all the foreign countries which participated in carrying into effect such an unique and compre- hensive Exhibition of the Forest Products of the World,
The grounds of Donaldson’s Hospital and an adjoining field at the west end of Edinburgh, extending to about 15 acres, were secured as a site for the Exhibition, and being easy of access by road, rail, and tramway, they proved admirable for the purpose. The space was laid out with a special view to facilitate the working of machinery and the proper display of the exhibits. On the spacious lawn in front of the Hospital, a handsome and commodious wooden building was erected, consisting of a grand gallery, with central, eastern, and western transepts, in which the most interesting collections were displayed. Three annexes, at the north end of the transepts, were chiefly occupied by a rich and varied display of trade exhibits. In the open field there were erected a neat wooden suite of offices for the accommodation of the Executive and official staff, and numerous buildings and enclosures for refreshments, storage, machinery in motion and stationary, and for the many other purposes demanded by such an Exhibition. There were also erected in the field numerous other buildings of an artistic and useful nature, such as Swiss chalets, rustic arbours, foresters’ huts, and the like ; among which The Queen’s Scots Fir Chalet, or Summer-house, from Balmoral occu- pied a prominent position, and deservedly attracted a large share of public attention. The general arrangement of the Exhibition and grounds is seen from the plan appended hereto, for which the Society is indebted to Messrs T. & A. Constable, Edinburgh, the printers of the Official Catalogue, who have gratuitously supplied copies to illustrate this Report.
70 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
In the arrangement of the Exhibition, the Society was allotted about 2000 feet of space for its exhibits, in an excellent posi- tion in the main gallery and north-west transept, near to the principal entrance. Here it was enabled to display to great advantage a vast array of rare, valuable, and interesting articles contributed by the members, and from the Society’s own collec- tions acquired at various times during the thirty years it has been instituted. These are fully detailed at the end of this report. The arrangement was carried out with taste and skill by the Secretary, Mr John M‘Laren, Jun., assisted by a special com- mittee. Tio members of the Society and to the public generally, the Scottish Arboricultural Society’s section was a centre of attraction from the opening to the close of the Exhibition—the numerous articles on the stands being examined with lively interest by the crowds that visited the Exhibition. The out-door display of the Society’s exhibits was arranged on a convenient site near the machinery in motion, and contained many things of much interest, especially to foresters. Scattered through the Exhibition, inside and out, were also to be seen many valuable collections and articles exhibited by members of the Society, especially from landowners and their foresters ; from the nursery and seed trade; and from the tool, implement, machinery, and fencing manufacturers.
Articles of every description connected with Forestry were exhibited in the buildings and grounds. These were contributed by almost every civilised country in the world, and included exhibits by The Queen, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Edin- burgh, several Government Departments, the Commissioners of H.M. Woods and Forests, the Government of India, the British Colonies, the Empire of Japan, and many other Foreign States, and a numerous and influential body of representatives of all classes at home and abroad.
It is much beyond the scope of such a limited report as this must necessarily be to give full details of any of the splendid collections of exhibits made by either States, Societies, or indivi- duals ; but it may be noted that the collections exhibited by The Queen, the British Government, the Scottish Arboricultural So- ciety, India, Japan, Guiana, Ceylon, Johore, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Cape of Good Hope, and New Brunswick, contained the cream of the Exhibition.
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 71
Britain.
In proceeding to give the following slight sketch of the principal exhibits, those claim the first notice which were sent by Her Majesty The Queen, who not only graciously allowed her name to appear among the list of Patrons, but took a lively interest otherwise in the Exhibition. From the Royal Forests on Deeside, in the conserving of which Her Majesty has set so excellent an example, came admirable specimens of the wood of Pinus sylvestris —the indigenous Scots Fir—which still flourishes in the Ballochbuie forest in all its pristine grandeur. Part of the wood had been worked up into an artistically designed rustic Chalet, the interior of which was beautifully finished in dressed Scots fir, the fur- niture being also of the same wood, all varnished with clear transparent copal, which showed to excellent effect the fine grain and beautiful swirl of this timber. The Chalet, which was wholly constructed of and furnished with Native Scots Fir, even to the “thatch ” of the roof (which was formed of Scots fir bark), looked both picturesque and appropriate ; and the whole formed in itself one of the most attractive features of the Exhibition. Several fine sections of Scots fir timber in its rough state, ranging from 212 to 270 years old—excellent alike as to size and quality—were also displayed around the Chalet. The trunk of one of these “monarchs of the forest” had lain on the ground for upwards of 40 years, and in that time its sapwood had become wasted into a mould in which were growing heather, cranberry, and blaeberry bushes, and mosses ; while the heartwood, measuring 34 feet across, was perfectly sound. An eminently practical part of the Royal exhibit were specimens of the soil in which Scots firs not only grow, but thrive in upper Deeside. One of these consisted of different strata of dry ferruginous gravel, with about 4 inches of peaty turf atop; the other, a mass of crumbled granite, having a small proportion of decomposed vegetable matter mixed with it. The first of these soils is, in most respects, similar to that of the great area of waste lands in Scotland ; and one of the objects Her Majesty is understood to have had in view in sending these Balmoral exhibits, was to encourage the planting of waste lands with Scots firs.
To their Royal Highnesses the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Edinburgh, the Exhibition was indebted for a splendid collec-
72 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
tion of hunting trophies from India and other countries ; and several noblemen and gentlemen, including Colonel Michael, the Indian Commissioner, also lent similar specimens, which appro- priately decorated the interior of the grand gallery.
The Commissioners of Woods and Forests—the public depart- ment for the management of the State forests and woodlands in this country—sent exhibits of much every-day interest to foresters. It may be noted in passing that the Woods and Forests under the charge of Her Majesty’s Commissioners amount in the aggre- gate to about 100,000 acres. Oak is largely grown in these woods, and there were sent for exhibition from the New Forest, in Hampshire, sections of this characteristic English tree, from 10 to 200 years old, showing the growth of the timber under varying circumstances of soil, and illustrating also the ravages of disease and the results of checking the same at an early stage; while from the Dean Forest—of which Sir James Campbell, Bart., has had the direction for many years—were sent a splendid collection of sections, and illustrative specimens of woods, accompanied by an elaborate chart, recording the comparative growth of oaks transplanted and not transplanted. These experiments had been carried on from the year 1809, and the transplanted oaks showed considerably the best results. The exhibits from Windsor Forest were also of a valuable and representative character, combined with much historical interest.
Oak bark illustrative of various methods of curing, sections of wood showing the devastation worked by insects and the bad effects of encumbering a tree with dead branches, specimens exhibiting the results of good and bad pruning, various kinds of gates and fences in use in the Royal Forests, timber waggons and other modes of transport, and a collection of forestry tools, mostly of somewhat primitive make, were also among the exhibits sent by Her Majesty’s Commissioners.
The Secretary for War sent a valuable and instructive collec- tion of exhibits from H.M. War Department, consisting of fine specimens of the various woods used in the manufacture of Gun- powder and samples of the charcoal made from them ; sections of the different timbers used in the construction of Gun-Carriages, and for other Ordnance purposes; specimens of Rifle Stocks and Lance Shafts in several stages of manufacture; and a variety of other articles used for purposes of war.
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 73
India.
The magnificent exhibits from our great Indian Empire, both in respect to scientific and practical value, received from visitors that amount of attention they so well deserved. They formed a pleasing illustration to arboriculturists in this country of the progress of the science in India, where its application was so much needed, and in which it has so wide a field to work. The Department of Forestry, which was organised less than thirty years ago by the East India Company, in which the President of this Society, Dr Cleghorn, took a leading part, has now grown into a great State Department, whose work is exerting an amelio- rative influence on the climatic and physical conditions of the country. Not only are the splendid forests of India—the present reserved area being no less than 46,000 square miles in extent— systematically managed and made to yield a handsome revenue, but there are also extensive nurseries and plantations in which trees are raised for the afforesting of treeless districts. Tree planting is being pushed northwards and westwards towards the Afghanistan and Beloochistan frontiers, and it is most instructive to hear that, as a direct result of such operations, the rainfall in these arid lands is gradually increasing. Occupying the whole of the south-central transept and several bays on each side, the Indian Collection, which was under the care of Colonel Michael, was by far the largest and most valuable in the building. In- cluded in it was the Calcutta “ Index Collection” of Museum Specimens, alphabetically arranged, and including about 800 examples of the trees of India, which grow in the vast territory be- tween Cape Comorin and the snow-capped Himalaya. The Bom- bay exhibits, consisting for the most part of sections of useful and ornamental woods, were chiefly remarkable for the skilful manner in which they had been cut so as to show the different grainings and qualities, and the appearance which the wood presented in a rough state and when dressed and varnished. The contribution from British Burmah included a number of grand bamboos 85 feet in length, and some splendid logs of teak (Zectona grandis), which there attains to a great size. Of unexcelled durability, the wood is largely exported to this country for ship and railway carriage building purposes ; and the uses to which it is put by the cabinet- maker and wood-carver were exemplified in beautiful carved panels
74 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
and in articles of furniture and interior decoration. The “ Black- wood” (Dalbergia latifolia), another valuable tree, had also been worked up in the same admirable manner, The “Sissoo” (Dal- bergia Sissoo) is a tree little known to outside commerce, but it has tough enduring qualities which fit it for Ordnance purposes. Gun carriages, with wheels made of ‘“Sissoo,” stood the wear and tear of the last Afghanistan campaign, and came back without, it is said, a single break-down having been recorded. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands were well represented by splendid logs of “Padouk” (Pterocarpus indicus), the colour of the timber vary- ing in different trees from that of cedar to dark mahogany; and by examples of the tree known by the natives as “Poon” (Calophyllum tnophyllwm), one slab of which, beautifully polished, surpassed in size everything cut in the same manner in the Exhibition. Travan- core sent some remarkably fine ebony, and the capabilities of our Indian Empire for the production of gums, resins, oils, medicinal barks, dye stuffs, and other useful products, were abundantly illustrated, and suggested the possibility of further trade in these and many other articles with our great Eastern Dependency. To the ordinary visitor a very pleasing part of the Indian collection was the beautiful display of carved work in ivory and wood, and the cases of native curiosities from the Punjab and other districts.
Japan.
The most notable, perhaps, of all the contributions from beyond the seas, was the extremely interesting, varied, and com- plete collection of forestry subjects sent from far-off Japan, which filled the whole of the eastern transept of the Exhibi- tion. This wonderful Collection of Forest Exhibits excited the interest and commanded the admiration of all, and clearly de- monstrated what rapid progress the Japanese are making in the science and art of forestry. It says much for the enlighten- ment and enterprise of the Japanese, that the government of a country which twenty years ago was jealously shut against all foreign intercourse, should have been one of the largest exhibitors in an International Forestry Exhibition held in the capital of Scotland. They also recognised their sense of the importance of the Exhibition by sending over as Commissioner one of their chief forestry officers, M. Tokai, whose methods of arranging and
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 75
cataloguing the collection were admirable. Extending, as it does, over 15 degrees of latitude, the ‘Island Empire” of Japan possesses a Flora common to both tropical and temperate zones, The rural arts have long had their home there, and none have attained to more perfection in the grafting and dwarfing of trees and shrubs than the Japanese. Scientific forestry has now been regarded as of suflicient importance to be taken in hand by the State, and four years ago a School of Forestry was established, in which in- struction is given to pupils by Japanese officials who have studied in the forestry schools of Germany. The curriculum in the forestry school includes botany, chemistry of the soil, natural philosophy, land surveying, and the practical work of planting and rearing trees. Attending the forestry school are about 150 pupils fitting themselves for work in the Government forests, while other pupils are the sons of landowners and farmers acquir- ing a scientific knowledge of arboriculture, in order to qualify them for managing their own lands. Japan, it will thus be seen, is ahead of Britain in this matter; and when the British Forest School is established, it will be well for it, and for the country, if it can draw its pupils from the same classes as attend for instruction in Japan. The Government forests of the “Island Empire” are now under strict regulations, and are worked on a systematic principle; plantations have been formed both for the rearing of native and foreign trees; and the charts which were so profusely hung around the walls of the court showed how carefully the forest surveys were being made. One of the charts by a native arboriculturist, showed the empire mapped out into five different tree regions—the first consisting of the zone of high temperature, with tropical evergreen trees, of which Ficus Wightiana was given as the typical example. In the temperate parts were the oaks and beeches and cedars, and the whole tribe of Thuias and Retinosporas, for which Japan is so famous ; while in the upper regions, as at home, is the habitat of the pines and firs—the handsome Abies Veitchii being the representative of the mountain trees. The walls were also covered with photographs and pictures of forest scenes, illustrative of the manner in which trees are cut and transported from the higher to the lower regions, while on the tables were numerous and most ingenious models of contrivances for causing artificial floods on small rivers for the transport of timber, and of shoots—“ Sadies ”—for sending the timber down steep and rugged mountain sides. In the
76 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
Japanese collection were included no fewer than 302 specimens of useful and ornamental woods, many of rare beauty and value. Since the days of Siebold, Fortune, and Veitch, the beautiful Retinosporas and Cryptomerias of Japan, with their graceful habits and feathery foliage, have formed an effective feature in our lawn decorations, and also in ornamental plantations ; but few were prepared to see that the members of the Arbor-vitee family in their own home attained to such gigantic dimensions. Here, for example, was a splendid slab of wood from a Retinospora obtusa, which had stood 120 feet high, with a girth of 20 feet ; and there were sections of the timber of Cryptomeria Japonica, which had been taken from trees of stately dimensions. Most lovely slabs of “camphor wood” (Cinnamomum camphora) with swirled grain were shown, as also pretty examples of maple and bird-cherry, junipers and yews. ‘There are six or seven varieties of oak grown in Japan, the timber of which, though not equal to that of the English oak, is, nevertheless, of excellent quality. A characteristic of the timber of the great Japanese tribe of Conifers is its fine even quality, close grain, and absence of faults—features which make it valuable for all kinds of wood-work. The collection made it clear that the Japanese are excellent wood workers and carvers. There was an excellent display of their inimitable lacquer-work, also numerous examples of cooperage, wickerwork, and other manu- factured wooden goods, all displaying much taste in design and great excellence in workmanship. Of much practical interest were the clever models of charcoal kilns, with numerous specimens of charcoal made in such kilns from various kinds of wood. The collection of scientific instruments, as well as of the tools and implements used in the Japanese forests, was of the greatest interest to British foresters, who culled many useful ideas from an inspection of them, although in many cases the shape and size of the articles were of a rather primitive nature, and not at all equal to our own tools and implements of the same kind.
Guiana.
Next in order may be mentioned the grand display of Forest Products exhibited by the Colony of British Guiana, which had the whole of the northern part of the central transept and part of the main gallery devoted to its accommodation, and
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 77 was even then much too crowded to properly display many of the rare and valuable articles of which it consisted. However, it was admirably arranged, considering the confined space, under the direction of Dr Russell, the Commissioner for the Colony, assisted most efficiently by Dr Imlach; and alike from a scientific and popular point of view, there was no more attractive court in the Exhibition. The primeval forests of the valleys of the Essequibo, the Demerara, the Berbice, and the Corentyn abound in splendid marketable timber. The monarch of these South American solitudes is the “ Mora” (Mora excelsa, of Bentham), which is said often to attain to a height of 300 feet, and a girth of 18 feet. The wood of this tree is hard and teak-like in texture, and has been found especially suitable for railway sleepers in warm countries. ‘“ Green-heart” (Vectandra Rodiai), various “ Cedars,” and other furniture woods are in abundance—one new timber specially brought under notice being a resinous wood called “ Wallaba” (Zperua falcata), which has been found very service- able for all kinds of cooper-work. Several very fine specimens were exhibited of the rare and costly “‘ Letter-wood” (Lrosimum Aubletii), so much sought after for inlaying and such purposes. One peculiar tree shown, named ‘‘ Yarooro” (Aspidosperma excelsa), grows in shape like a deeply fluted column, and is said to be greatly in request by the Indians for making paddles. Cutting off one of the flutings, they have almost a paddle ready made, and having no cross grain, the wood is very durable. Specimens of the timber of over 100 trees were included in the collection, the sections shown being all of a substantial, many of them of a great size. Of the parasites and fungi of woods there was a large and varied representation, presenting a wide field for the study of the botanist—the fungi of British Guiana being as yet undescribed. The country was also shown to be exceedingly rich in fibre-bearing plants, among these being a very serviceable cotton, which is used by the Indians for various purposes. The collection was rich in specimens of what may be called the curiosities of a tropical forest, not the least instructive of which were the illustrations of the life and habits of the Indians of these parts. The collection of medicinal barks was a numerous and interesting one, and con- tained several kinds likely to prove valuable in pharmacy. A large and varied collection of the tree and other seeds of the colony were exhibited, but as only the vernacular names were
78 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
attached to most of them, they were more curious than useful. The collection of gums and resins was also of a valuable and interesting nature, and contained some remarkably fine specimens. Vegetable oils, dyes, bitters, etc., were well represented. Various kinds of palm woods and articles manufactured therefrom at- tracted much attention, especially the articles manufactured by the Indians, including houses, furniture, canoes, basket-work, ete., in most of which palm predominated in one shape or another. An Indian punt, designed for transporting the heavy greenheart timber down the rivers of the colony to the seaports, was parti- cularly noteworthy for the excellency of its construction and general adaptability. On the whole the display was in the highest degree creditable to the colony, and to the skill and enterprise of those who collected, arranged, and managed it.
St Vincent and Tobago.
Alongside of the British Guiana exhibits there were arranged two very interesting collections from the West India islands of St Vincent and Tobago. These collections were also managed and arranged by Dr Russell and Dr Imlach, and in the case of the island of St Vincent the display was most comprehensive and instructive. Bamboos in great variety and articles made from them; cross and length sections of timbers, mostly of excellent quality and suitable for all sorts of purposes up to the finest cabinet work ; capital models of foresters’ huts, boats, rafts; neat basket work; fibres of great variety and fineness; gums, seeds, dried fruits, preserves, pickles, and a multitude of other articles of a useful or ornamental nature, made up a wonderful collection from such a small island. The collection from Tobago included many curious articles used as household utensils and for fancy purposes by the natives; and a good display of wood sections showing the fine grain and durable qualities of many of the forest trees of the island.
Ceylon.
Adjoining the Indian Court was an excellent representative Collection of the Forest Products of Ceylon, which had been got
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 79
together through the enterprise of one of its planters and a member of the Scottish Arboricultural Society—Mr J. Alexander, of Kirklees, Udapussallawa, Ceylon. It included, among a great variety of useful and artistic articles, upwards of 230 specimens of the wood of forest trees, conspicuous among which were some beautiful samples of the valuable satinwood, and also some very fine specimens of cocoa-nut wood. The various methods by which the valuable bark of the cinchona tree (the quinine of commerce) is harvested and prepared for market, was clearly illustrated in the most complete detail. Of this valuable medicinal bark as much as 7,000,000 lbs. were exported in 1883—the industry being one of the most remunerative that Ceylon possesses. Of the products and uses of the Cocoa-nut Palm, about 80 examples were shown; of the Palmyra Palm, about 160; and of the Talipot Palm, a numerous collection. _Bamboos, Basket-work, Barks, Oils, Resins, Seeds, Fibres, and other forest products were exhibited in great abundance ; and the Collection was also rich in Ceylon forest and plantation literature, and illustrations of life and scenery in Ceylon,
Johore.
Hard by the Ceylon exhibits was an admirable collection in charge of Mr James Meldrum, Commissioner for that enlightened Eastern Prince, the Maharajah of Johore, which is a richly wooded State in the Malay Peninsula. It included about 350 specimens of indigenous timber trees, and a great variety of instructive samples of the forest produce of that most productive country. Among these were fine examples of camphor, gum, gambier, and gutta-percha, Johore having been the first place from which the latter commodity was exported to this country. The Maharajah is a great woodman, and beautiful models of timber rafts, photographs of his sawmills, and sets of Malayan forestry implements were displayed.
Perak, Singapore, and Siam.
From the State of Perak, and from the island of Singapore lying to the south of the peninsula, came specimens of indigenous trees, chief among which were the “Seriah” (Hopea), the Johore
80 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
teak, and the “Tampinnis,” the last mentioned being especially valuable to the builder in the tropics, as it is proof against the attack of white ants. Siam—the land of the white elephant— sent over 500 sections of trees under their native names, among the more important being teak, sandalwood, rosewood, and ebony.
Borneo.
From the large and interesting island of Borneo there were exhibited about fifty kinds of timber grown in the forests of the island, accompanied by their leaves and flowers, by means of which botanists could identify most of them. Samples of the axes used by the natives in felling the trees were also shown, These axes, or “ billyongs” as they are termed, in various shapes and sizes, are in general use in Eastern countries, and are excellent tools in the hand of a native, whose physical powers are totally unable to swing the heavy felling axes of Western nations.
Mauritius.
The picturesque and richly clothed island of Mauritius, situated in the midst of the Indian Ocean, and more famous for its sugar plantations than its forests in recent times, exhibited fine speci- mens of about seventy of the woods grown in the island, a few of which have been introduced, but the great majority are indigenous. Many of them exhibited a fine close grain and superior quality, and would be found useful in high class wood work. Some excellent samples of indiarubber, from trees grown in the Colony, were also exhibited ; and the most extensive and complete Collec- tion of Fibres shown in the Exhibition came from the Mauritius. Among the fibres were several of a smooth silky nature and fine staple, which would be highly valued by manufacturers of soft goods if the raw material can be grown in quantity at a moderate cost.
Australia.
The large colonies of Australia contributed comparatively little to the Exhibition. This was the more to be regretted considering the number of valuable timber trees indigenous to them, and the
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 81
importance which forest conservancy is rapidly assuming in these colonies. The gums (Zucalyptus) and their products alone would have made an interesting exhibition, especially the typical Australian tree—the blue gum (Zucalyptus globulus)—which has been so largely planted, with exceedingly satisfactory re- sults, in so many malarious districts in the warmer parts of the world. The South Australian Government, however, ex- hibited a number of interesting books and plates illustrative of its forest flora, and reports and plans of the management of its forest areas, which are now under a regular system of forest conservancy.
From the Royal Gardens at Kew, London, there was sent by Sir Joseph Hooker an excellent Collection of Australian Woods, including many large and beautiful specimens, and embracing all the best known and most popular kinds indigenous to these and the adjacent colonies of Tasmania and New Zealand, which to a certain extent made up for the paucity of exhibits sent direct from Australia.
Cape Colony.
Other portions of the British Empire which came well to the front were our African Colonies—Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Gambia, and Sierra Leone. The Cape Colony has been sadly denuded of its primeval forests, and the best timbered parts now existing are situated in the mountainous region of Knysna, in the south-eastern district of the Colony. The forests have a coast-line of about 100 miles, with an average breadth of 25 miles. Recently the Cape Government have adopted very stringent measures of conservation to prevent the wasteful destruction going on, which threatened to lead at an early day to the total deforesting of the country. The forests are in process of being surveyed, so that they may be worked on a principle of rotation, and protective measures have also been taken against fires. Premiums of a substantial amount have been offered to pri- vate parties who will plant a certain number of trees ; Govern- ment plantations have been formed on the Cape flats and other waste lands; and nurseries have been established in which sap- lings are reared for the filling of gaps in the Crown forests, or
for selling to private planters at a cheap rate. VOL. XI., PART I. F
82 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION,
Among the indigenous trees of the Cape—of which specimens were shown—were the Cape “ Yellow-wood” (Podocarpus Thun- bergvi), very suitable for waggon building; the ‘ Stinkwood” (Oreodaphne bullata), largely used in the manufacture of furniture, its colour and graining being good; and the “ Sneezewood” (Pteroxylon utile), which is of great specific gravity, and, like the greenheart of Guiana, capable of withstanding the attacks of marine boring worms. Specimens of Cape box-tree (Celastrus buxifolius) were recommended to notice as likely to answer well in connection with the art of wood engraving. In all, there were exhibited specimens of the wood of forty-five kinds of trees grown in the Colony.
No wood is at present exported from Cape Colony, as more is required than the home-growth can supply. What is imported is chiefly in the shape of Norway deals, which it seems can be sold at Cape Town cheaper than the indigenous timber of the country, so great is the cost of transport, etc., from the Knysna forests.
There were also shown in the Cape collection a capital model of a Timber Waggon, simply and efficiently constructed to render it safe for transporting heavy loads over rough ground and through African “kloofs ” or ravines,—impassable by any less strongly-built vehicle,—and found particularly serviceable for “Transport riding” over the hot, dry Karroo country of South Africa. The Commissioners who represented the Cape Colony at the Exhibition were The Hon. Robert Southey, C.M.G., of the Cape of Good Hope, and Charles D. Steuart of Dalguise, Perthshire, by whose efforts the collection was made
one of the most interesting to visitors of any of its class in the Exhibition.
Natal.
The collection of exhibits from Natal was interesting, although not very large. It was chiefly contributed by a member of this Society, David M. Smythe, yr. of Methven, Perthshire, and con- sisted of Specimens of the Woods of the Colony, several of which seemed to be of considerable value for cabinet-making
and higher-class woodwork ; and of botanical specimens of the Forest Flora of Natal.
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. 83
Gambia.
The Government of the Colony of Gambia had an extremely creditable display, consisting of a large number of specimens of native woods and samples of fibres, some of which are likely to prove valuable in commerce. ‘These, with models of boats and native canoes; models of native huts; and a great variety of native furniture, household utensils, personal ornaments, and curiosities, made up a very attractive exhibition. This collection was also rich in tropical forest products, containing many fine samples of gums, resins, vegetable oils, seeds, indiarubber, and indigo, as well as honey, Indian corn, rice, and other articles of food,
Sierra Leone.
From Sierra Leone there were sent by the Government of the Colony a fine collection of the Forest products of that rich but unhealthy climate, consisting of, among other things, a good display of specimens of the woods of the country, with many fine samples of cotton and other fibrous substances, tanning barks, indiarubber, indigo, and wickerwork. Like the Gambia collec- tion, this was also distinguished by the numerous articles it contained illustrative of the life, habits, and customs of the savage races who are still beyond the pale of modern civilisation. These tropical African collections showed what a mine of wealth still lies undeveloped in the grand forests and rich lands of the “Dark Continent,” from which we may expect to reap an abundant commercial harvest in the not distant future.
Canada and New Brunswick.
Among our North American colonies, New Brunswick wag the only one represented to any extent at the Exhibition ; the Commissioner in charge of its exhibits, Mr Edward Jack, also displayed in the Court a few good exhibits of forest produce and other articles from various parts of the Dominion of Canada. New Brunswick is one of the oldest colonies on the Atlantic seaboard, and its virgin forests—though giving way before the advance of the agriculturist —are still of great extent and
84 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
value; but, according to the testimony of the Commissioner, they are sadly in want of conservation. There were exhibited many excellent specimens of the native hardwoods, chiefly shown in the form of polished panels; all possessing the characteristic of remarkably light colour. The examples of ash, bird’s-eye maple, and birch were particularly fine. On the wall of this Court was displayed a large and most interesting map—the only contribution of the Dominion Government—on which was marked the limits of the Forest trees of Canada, by Dr Robert Bell, Assistant Director of the Canadian Geological Survey. It appeared that the trees of the higher zones were the spruce, larch, and balsam poplar, their limit being marked at about 65° N.L.
A nicely got up collection of forest tree seeds, indigenous to the Province of Quebec, along with beautifully executed coloured illustrations of the flowers and foliage of each tree, by Miss E. M. Jack, of Quebec, were also exhibited in the New Bruns- wick Court.
Manitoba.
No more instructive and interesting exhibit, froma practical point of view, was displayed than that sent from Manitoba. It showed the complete buildings of a Far West farm, all constructed of wood grown in the forests of the Colony. Wooden implements and utensils for farm, dairy, and domestic use were exhibited in great variety, and showed strength combined with lightness in a high degree. “Snake” and other fences in vogue on the prairies, were also a feature in this collection, from which the practical forester, as well as the intending emigrant, might have derived many a useful lesson. There were also exhibited specimens of about forty varieties of the timber indigenous to the North West and the Rocky Mountains, many of the sections displaying great size and fine quality.
California.
From another famous timber tree region in the New World came a most interesting representation of the gigantic ‘“‘ Redwood ” tree (Sequoia sempervirens) of the country to the north of the
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ig 4)
INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
“Golden Gate” of California along the Pacific coast towards Oregon.
We are told that in the district of Eureka, redwood trees of 10, 12, or 20 feet in diameter are common, with straight boles rising to the height of 150 or 200 feet before a single branch is thrown out. A section of a giant redwood tree, 13 feet in diameter, was conspicuously displayed under the western dome of the Exhibition, where it attracted the attention of every one. Of the many uses to which its valuable timber may be put, there was a beautiful illustration in a cabinet trophy in the adjoining transept, as well as the splendid redwood chalet erected in the grounds,
Florida.
Nor must it be forgotten to mention the beautiful exhibits of curled pitch pine and pencil “cedar” wood sent from Florida,— that paradise of our American cousins,—the grand primeval forests of which are still to a large extent intact from the tree-destroying lumberman of the Northern States ; although the Flowery Land is now threatened with timber “booms,” which will quickly clear it of its trees, if precautions to prevent such a calamity are not taken in time.
The contributions from other States and countries of the Western Hemisphere were confined to the exhibits of private individuals ; and although many of them were of a useful and instructive nature, and comprised numerous rare and curious articles, none were so specially prominent as to call for further remark,
Cyprus.
The only British possession in Europe, outside of the United Kingdom, which contributed a Collection of Forest products was the recently acquired island of Cyprus. These were sent by Mr Edward Dobbs, Chief Forest Officer, and comprised a numerous display of the woods produced in the island, including fine speci- mens of the Aleppo and Corsican pines, the principal timber- producing trees of the country ; several species of pine cones and seeds; specimens of resins extracted from the pines; tanning
86 INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION.
substances ; branches of juniper and myrtle used in the island as materials for making baskets; and ropes for certain useful purposes requiring strength more than neatness. The collection, as a whole, augured well for the future of the forests of the colony, which are now managed under a proper system of forest conservancy.
Among European countries, Denmark and Scandinavia dis- played the most important collections, contributing a great variety of excellent timber, cut and planed to show its fine quality, and the many useful purposes for which it is adapted.
Denmark.
Tn the Danish Court there were exhibited a numerous assortment of turned-wood goods, household utensils, wheelwrights’ materials, and other wood articles of a useful nature, all showing excellent material, good workmanship,